The coevolution between telson morphology and venom glands in scorpions (Arachnida)

As in previous contributions to the JVATiTD, the aim of this note is to bring some general information on a particular aspect of the scorpion biology. An attempt is made to explain the possible coevolution of telson morphology and venom glands, which took place during several hundred million years and in particular since scorpions migrated from aquatic to terrestrial environments. Three components can be directly associated with predation and defensive behaviours: (1) morphology of the chelae and structure of the chelae fingers granulations; (2) morphology of the metasoma and in particular of the telson; (3) evolution of tegumentary glands in the telson toward different types of venom glands. Since a number of recent contributions already treated some of these aspects, I will limit my comments to the possible evolution of the telson in relation to the evolution of venom glands. As in previous contributions, the content of this article is basically addressed to non-specialists on scorpions whose research embraces scorpions in several fields such as venom toxins and public health.(AU)

The coevolution between telson morphology and venom glands in scorpions (Arachnida)

As in previous contributions to the JVATiTD, the aim of this note is to bring some general information on a particular aspect of the scorpion biology. An attempt is made to explain the possible coevolution of telson morphology and venom glands, which took place during several hundred million years and in particular since scorpions migrated from aquatic to terrestrial environments. Three components can be directly associated with predation and defensive behaviours: (1) morphology of the chelae and structure of the chelae fingers granulations; (2) morphology of the metasoma and in particular of the telson; (3) evolution of tegumentary glands in the telson toward different types of venom glands. Since a number of recent contributions already treated some of these aspects, I will limit my comments to the possible evolution of the telson in relation to the evolution of venom glands. As in previous contributions, the content of this article is basically addressed to non-specialists on scorpions whose research embraces scorpions in several fields such as venom toxins and public health.(AU)

Biting the hand that feeds you: wedge-billed hummingbird is a nectar robber of a sicklebill-adapted Andean bellflower / Muerde la mano que le da de comer: Colibrí pico cuña el ladrón de néctar de Centropogon granulosus (Campanulaceae)

Informo sobre el comportamiento de robo de néctar del colibrí pico cuña, Schistes geoffroyi (Trochilidae) en la flor campanulada neotropical, Centropogon granulosus (Campanulaceae). Muchas especies de Centropogon se caracterizan por tener una flor tubular curvada de distintas formas y probablemente especializadas para ser polinizadas por los colibríes de pico curvo (Eutoxeres), como es evidente a partir de la curvatura tanto de la flor como del pico. Debido a la exclusividad de este mutualismo, el robo de néctar ha sido ocasionalmente documentado en Centropogon. Aquí amplío el estudio de robo de néctar de Centropogon incluyendo a Schistes geoffroyi. Esta expansión puede ser un indicador de la alta especialización entre el mutualismo de Centropogon y el colibrí de pico curvo, siendo esta más susceptible al robo de néctar de lo que pensaba previamente. Esto genera preguntas acerca de la evolución de la especialización y parasitismo en este grupo tropical, tanto de las campanuladas como de los colibríes.

I report on nectar robbing behavior of the wedge-billed hummingbird, Schistes geoffroyi (Trochilidae) on the Andean bellflower, Centropogon granulosus (Campanulaceae). Many species of Centropogon are characterized by an abruptly curved corolla tube which is likely specialized for pollination by sicklebill hummingbirds (Eutoxeres), as evident from the matching curvature of flower and bill. Nectar robbing has been documented for some Centropogon spp., but not for sicklebill pollinated C. granulosus. Given recent developments and interest in the Centropogon-sicklebill mutualism, it is pertinent to document any natural history observations that may underlie the ecology and evolution of this pollination system. The establishment of wedge-billed hummingbird as a nectar robber of C. granulosus calls for a new assessment of the ecology and evolution of the highly specialized Centropogon-sicklebill mutualism.

Biting the hand that feeds you: wedge-billed hummingbird is a nectar robber of a sicklebill-adapted Andean bellflower / Muerde la mano que le da de comer: Colibrí pico cuña el ladrón de néctar de Centropogon granulosus (Campanulaceae)

Informo sobre el comportamiento de robo de néctar del colibrí pico cuña, Schistes geoffroyi (Trochilidae) en la flor campanulada neotropical, Centropogon granulosus (Campanulaceae). Muchas especies de Centropogon se caracterizan por tener una flor tubular curvada de distintas formas y probablemente especializadas para ser polinizadas por los colibríes de pico curvo (Eutoxeres), como es evidente a partir de la curvatura tanto de la flor como del pico. Debido a la exclusividad de este mutualismo, el robo de néctar ha sido ocasionalmente documentado en Centropogon. Aquí amplío el estudio de robo de néctar de Centropogon incluyendo a Schistes geoffroyi. Esta expansión puede ser un indicador de la alta especialización entre el mutualismo de Centropogon y el colibrí de pico curvo, siendo esta más susceptible al robo de néctar de lo que pensaba previamente. Esto genera preguntas acerca de la evolución de la especialización y parasitismo en este grupo tropical, tanto de las campanuladas como de los colibríes.(AU)

I report on nectar robbing behavior of the wedge-billed hummingbird, Schistes geoffroyi (Trochilidae) on the Andean bellflower, Centropogon granulosus (Campanulaceae). Many species of Centropogon are characterized by an abruptly curved corolla tube which is likely specialized for pollination by sicklebill hummingbirds (Eutoxeres), as evident from the matching curvature of flower and bill. Nectar robbing has been documented for some Centropogon spp., but not for sicklebill pollinated C. granulosus. Given recent developments and interest in the Centropogon-sicklebill mutualism, it is pertinent to document any natural history observations that may underlie the ecology and evolution of this pollination system. The establishment of wedge-billed hummingbird as a nectar robber of C. granulosus calls for a new assessment of the ecology and evolution of the highly specialized Centropogon-sicklebill mutualism.(AU)

Co-evolução de Coronavirus Aviário (AvCoV) e hospedeiros aviários com base em utilização de códons

O Coronavirus aviário (AvCoV) é o agente causal da bronquite infecciosa das galinhas, uma doença que ocasiona grandes perdas econômicas na indústria avícola, que também pode ter como hospedeiro outras espécies de aves domésticas e selvagens. O AvCoV tem uma distribuição mundial e uma ampla variabilidade genética que resulta em distintas linhagens, levando a doença respiratória, entérica, reprodutiva ou renal. A co-evolução do sistema Coronavirus/ hospedeiro é amplamente conhecida em termos de receptores, transmissão, patogenia, resposta imune, genética de populações e filogenia, mas os estudos baseados na utilização de códons são escassos. Para o presente trabalho, foram obtidas do Genbank 57 sequencias de genoma completo do AvCoV de diferentes regiões do mundo que representar os diferentes genótipos e subtipos; os genomas foram divididos por regiões codificantes e genes para serem analisados e utilizadas para gerar indicadores do uso de códons como uso relativo de códons sinônimos, construções filogenéticas, índice de adaptação codônica e o número efetivo de códons. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que, considerando A. cygnoides, A. platyrhynchus e F. peregrinus, linhagens de AvCoV possuem um alto fitness no uso de códons nos mRNAs de renina, proteína da zona pelúcida e surfactante pulmonar respetivamente, além de não terem sido encontrados padrões de segregação na utilização de códons, sendo a força dominante sobre a evolução do AvCoV a seleção natural. O AvCoV apresentou um uso de códons pouco enviesado (Nc >45) e foi evidenciado que, com base no uso de códons, o AvCoV poderia se replicar com sucesso nos diferentes hospedeiros deste estudo.

Avian Coronavirus (AvCoV) is the causative agent of infectious bronchitis in chickens, this disease causes great economic losses in the poultry industry, which can also host other species of domestic and wild birds. AvCoV has a worldwide distribution and a wide genetic variability that results in different strains, leading to respiratory, enteric, renal or reproductive disease. The co-evolution of the coronavirus/host system is widely known in terms of receptors, transmission, pathogenesis, immune response, population genetics and phylogeny, but studies based on the use of codons are few. For the present work, 57 complete Genome sequences from AvCoV from different regions of the world that represent the different genotypes and subtypes were obtained from Genbank; the genomes were divided by coding regions and genes to be analyzed and used to generate codon usage indicators such as relative use of synonymous codons, phylogenetic constructions, codon adaptation index and the effective number of codons. The results obtained showed that, considering A. cygnoides, A. platyrhynchus and F. peregrinus, AvCoV strains have a high fitness in the use of codons in renin mRNAs, pellucid zone protein and pulmonary surfactant, respectively, in addition to not having been found segregation patterns in the use of codons, the dominant force on the evolution of AvCoV being natural selection. AvCoV showed a slightly codon usage bias (Nc> 45) and it was shown that, based on the use of codons, AvCoV could successfully replicate in the different hosts of this study.

Microbial interactions: ecology in a molecular perspective

ABSTRACT The microorganism-microorganism or microorganism-host interactions are the key strategy to colonize and establish in a variety of different environments. These interactions involve all ecological aspects, including physiochemical changes, metabolite exchange, metabolite conversion, signaling, chemotaxis and genetic exchange resulting in genotype selection. In addition, the establishment in the environment depends on the species diversity, since high functional redundancy in the microbial community increases the competitive ability of the community, decreasing the possibility of an invader to establish in this environment. Therefore, these associations are the result of a co-evolution process that leads to the adaptation and specialization, allowing the occupation of different niches, by reducing biotic and abiotic stress or exchanging growth factors and signaling. Microbial interactions occur by the transference of molecular and genetic information, and many mechanisms can be involved in this exchange, such as secondary metabolites, siderophores, quorum sensing system, biofilm formation, and cellular transduction signaling, among others. The ultimate unit of interaction is the gene expression of each organism in response to an environmental (biotic or abiotic) stimulus, which is responsible for the production of molecules involved in these interactions. Therefore, in the present review, we focused on some molecular mechanisms involved in the microbial interaction, not only in microbial-host interaction, which has been exploited by other reviews, but also in the molecular strategy used by different microorganisms in the environment that can modulate the establishment and structuration of the microbial community.

Microbial interactions: ecology in a molecular perspective

The microorganism-microorganism or microorganism-host interactions are the key strategy to colonize and establish in a variety of different environments. These interactions involve all ecological aspects, including physiochemical changes, metabolite exchange, metabolite conversion, signaling, chemotaxis and genetic exchange resulting in genotype selection. In addition, the establishment in the environment depends on the species diversity, since high functional redundancy in the microbial community increases the competitive ability of the community, decreasing the possibility of an invader to establish in this environment. Therefore, these associations are the result of a co-evolution process that leads to the adaptation and specialization, allowing the occupation of different niches, by reducing biotic and abiotic stress or exchanging growth factors and signaling. Microbial interactions occur by the transference of molecular and genetic information, and many mechanisms can be involved in this exchange, such as secondary metabolites, siderophores, quorum sensing system, biofilm formation, and cellular transduction signaling, among others. The ultimate unit of interaction is the gene expression of each organism in response to an environmental (biotic or abiotic) stimulus, which is responsible for the production of molecules involved in these interactions. Therefore, in the present review, we focused on some molecular mechanisms involved in the microbial interaction, not only in microbial-host interaction, which has been exploited by other reviews, but also in the molecular strategy used by different microorganisms in the environment that can modulate the establishment and structuration of the microbial community.(AU)

Cytological aspects of incompatible and compatible interactions between rice, wheat and the blast pathogen Pyricularia oryzae

Blast, caused by the fungus Pyricularia oryzae, is an important disease affecting rice and wheat yield worldwide. This study investigated the cytological aspects of incompatible (non-host resistance) and compatible (host resistance) rice- (R_Po) and wheat- (W_Po) Pyricularia oryzae isolate interactions. Inoculations of rice and wheat with the R_Po and W_Po isolates of P. oryzae, respectively, were expected to be compatible interactions (host resistance), whereas inoculations of rice and wheat with the W_Po and R_Po isolates of P. oryzae, respectively, were considered to be incompatible interactions (non-host resistance). For the compatible interactions (rice-R_Po and wheat-W_Po), fungal hyphae penetrated and colonized the epidermal cells and also invaded many neighboring cells. By contrast, in the case of the incompatible interactions (rice-W_Po and wheat-R_Po), fungal hyphae were not able to penetrate nor colonize the epidermal cells, but when penetration did occur, the hyphae were restricted to the first-invaded epidermal cell. The frequency of appressorial sites exhibiting infection hyphae within the epidermal cell underlying an appressorium was greater in the case of the compatible interactions. By contrast, unsuccessful penetrations with cytoplasmic granulation occurred with high frequency in the incompatible wheat-R_Po and rice-W_Po interactions and the number of necrotic epidermal cells underlying the appressorium was low for the rice-W_Po interaction as well as for the wheat- R_Po interaction, where no symptoms of necrosis were exhibited. However, the opposite was observed for the compatible interactions. The present study presents cytological features associated with incompatible and compatible rice- and wheat-P. oryzae interactions that may be useful to studies involving variability, coevolution, diagnosis, and regulation of quarantine or even in a rice or wheat breeding program whose aim is to transfer genes involved in non-host resistance to host resistance due to similarities in downstream mechanisms.

Cytological aspects of incompatible and compatible interactions between rice, wheat and the blast pathogen Pyricularia oryzae

Blast, caused by the fungus Pyricularia oryzae, is an important disease affecting rice and wheat yield worldwide. This study investigated the cytological aspects of incompatible (non-host resistance) and compatible (host resistance) rice- (R_Po) and wheat- (W_Po) Pyricularia oryzae isolate interactions. Inoculations of rice and wheat with the R_Po and W_Po isolates of P. oryzae, respectively, were expected to be compatible interactions (host resistance), whereas inoculations of rice and wheat with the W_Po and R_Po isolates of P. oryzae, respectively, were considered to be incompatible interactions (non-host resistance). For the compatible interactions (rice-R_Po and wheat-W_Po), fungal hyphae penetrated and colonized the epidermal cells and also invaded many neighboring cells. By contrast, in the case of the incompatible interactions (rice-W_Po and wheat-R_Po), fungal hyphae were not able to penetrate nor colonize the epidermal cells, but when penetration did occur, the hyphae were restricted to the first-invaded epidermal cell. The frequency of appressorial sites exhibiting infection hyphae within the epidermal cell underlying an appressorium was greater in the case of the compatible interactions. By contrast, unsuccessful penetrations with cytoplasmic granulation occurred with high frequency in the incompatible wheat-R_Po and rice-W_Po interactions and the number of necrotic epidermal cells underlying the appressorium was low for the rice-W_Po interaction as well as for the wheat- R_Po interaction, where no symptoms of necrosis were exhibited. However, the opposite was observed for the compatible interactions. The present study presents cytological features associated with incompatible and compatible rice- and wheat-P. oryzae interactions that may be useful to studies involving variability, coevolution, diagnosis, and regulation of quarantine or even in a rice or wheat breeding program whose aim is to transfer genes involved in non-host resistance to host resistance due to similarities in downstream mechanisms.(AU)

Investigação de Trypanosoma cruzi e outros protozoários em animais silvestres no Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil

Trypanosoma cruzi é uma das espécies mais importantes do gênero Trypanosoma, sendo este o causador da Doença de Chagas, também conhecida como Tripanossomíase Americana. Diversas espécies podem atuar na manutenção de T. cruzi, tanto no ambiente silvestre quanto antropizado. Estudos sugerem uma coevolução desse protozoário com os marsupiais americanos e os Xenarthras, considerando esses mamíferos como hospedeiros naturais. Quando comparados a outros mamíferos, os marsupiais apresentam alta plasticidade ecológica. Estes animais têm servido como sentinela de algumas doenças zoonóticas. Além disso, dados sugerem que outros protozoários, como Toxoplasma gondii e Neospora caninum, são considerados graves ameaças para marsupiais. O objetivo desse estudo foi investigar a participação de animais silvestres, principalmente marsupiais, no ciclo enzoótico de Trypanosoma cruzi e outros protozoários no Rio Grande do Sul. Na primeira etapa deste trabalho realizou-se a pesquisa de anticorpos contra T. cruzi, T. gondii e N. caninum em duas espécies de marsupiais (Didelphis albiventris e Philander frenatus) de vida livre (n =76). Enquanto, 11% foram soropositivos para T. cruzi e 26% para T. gondii, nenhum dos animais foi positivo para N. caninum. Na segunda etapa, a pesquisa de anticorpos contra T. cruzi foi expandida para outras espécies silvestres/selvagens de vida livre, como canídeos e felídeos neotropicais e javalis. Das 183 amostras avaliadas, 56% (103) foram soropositivas para T. cruzi. Os resultados mostraram que os javalis (Sus scrofa) apresentaram maior frequência de soropositivos (90%) do que as espécies neotropicais. Aproximadamente um terço dos canídeos (Cerdocyon thous e Lycalopex gymnocercus) e felídeos (Leopardus geoffroyi e Leopardus wiedii) foram positivos na sorologia para a detecção de anticorpos anti-T. cruzi. Na última etapa deste estudo, realizou-se a pesquisa molecular de DNA de T. cruzi em amostras de triatomíneos (Panstrongylus megistus) e em tecidos de gambás (D. albiventris). Aproximadamente dois terços das amostras de P. megistus foram positivos para detecção molecular de DNA de Tripanossomatídeos, com sequência apresentando 98% de identidade com Crithidia sp.. Esse trabalho permitiu concluir que há indícios da circulação de T. cruzi em algumas espécies neotropicais e exóticas presentes nos biomas do Rio Grande do Sul. Quanto a T. gondii e N. caninum, foi demonstrado que há marcada diferença em sua ocorrência. Os três agentes estudados conseguem manter-se mesmo em áreas silenciosas para a doença em humanos. Como os animais silvestres podem potencialmente albergar alguns agentes zoonóticos, a preservação dos habitats naturais ajuda a manter a circulação dos microrganismos apenas em seu ciclo enzoótico e não no ciclo epidêmico.

Trypanosoma cruzi is one of the most important species of the Trypanosoma genus, which is the cause of Chagas disease, also known as American trypanosomiasis. Several species can act in the maintenance of T. cruzi, both in the wild and anthropogenic environment. Studies suggest a coevolution of this protozoan with American marsupials and Xenarthras, considering these mammals as natural hosts. When compared to other mammals, marsupials have high ecological plasticity. These animals have served as sentinels for some zoonotic diseases. In addition, data suggest that other protozoa, such as Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum, are considered serious threats to marsupials. The aim of this study was to investigate the participation of wild animals, mainly marsupials, in the enzootic cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi and other protozoa in Rio Grande do Sul. In the first stage of this work, antibodies against T. cruzi, T. gondii and N. caninum in two species of free-living marsupials (Didelphis albiventris and Philander frenatus) (n = 76). While, 11% were seropositive for T. cruzi and 26% for T. gondii, none of the animals were positive for N. caninum. In the second stage, the search for antibodies against T. cruzi was expanded to other wild / wild species of free life, such as neotropical canids and felids and wild boars. Of the 183 samples evaluated, 56% (103) were seropositive for T. cruzi. The results showed that wild boars (Sus scrofa) had a higher frequency of seropositive individuals (90%) than neotropical species. Approximately one third of canids (Cerdocyon thous and Lycalopex gymnocercus) and felids (Leopardus geoffroyi and Leopardus wiedii) were positive in serology for the detection of anti-T. cruzi antibodies. I crossed. In the last stage of this study, molecular research of T. cruzi DNA was carried out on samples of triatomines (Panstrongylus megistus) and on possum tissues (D. albiventris). Approximately two thirds of P. megistus samples were positive for molecular detection of trypanosomatid DNA, with a sequence showing 98% identity with Crithidia sp .. This work allowed us to conclude that there is evidence of the circulation of T. cruzi in some neotropical and exotic species present in the biomes of Rio Grande do Sul. As for T. gondii and N. caninum, it was demonstrated that there is a marked difference in their occurrence. The three agents studied are able to remain even in silent areas for the disease in humans. As wild animals can potentially host some zoonotic agents, the preservation of natural habitats helps to maintain the circulation of microorganisms only in their enzootic cycle and not in the epidemic cycle.

DETECÇÃO MOLECULAR DE ALFA INFLUENZAVÍRUS E CORONAVÍRUS EM MORCEGOS NÃO HEMATÓFAGOS COLETADOS NO ESTADO DE SÃO PAULO, BRASIL.

Os quirópteros constituem um importante grupo de reservatórios de vírus de importância em saúde pública. As razões para isso são várias, tais como a ampla diversidade, extensa distribuição, longevidade, adaptação a ecossistemas alterados, grande diversidade trófica, diversidade de habitats, capacidade de voar longas distancias, e a alta interação entre espécies tanto da mesma ordem como entre outras espécies de mamíferos, incluindo os humanos. Centenas de vírus tem sido associados a morcegos, entre os quais se encontram os influenzavírus e os coronavírus. Este tipo de associação vírus-hospedeiro de longa data pode ter se originado através de processos de co-evolução. Sendo assim, a detecção precoce e caracterização destes vírus em seus hospedeiros naturais poderia ajudar a entender melhor fenômenos spillover em humanos como o que aconteceu recentemente com o SARS-CoV-2. Este estudo teve como objetivo detectar por métodos moleculares a presença de alfa influenzavírus (IAV) e coronavírus (Orthocoronavirinae) em morcegos não hematófagos coletados no estado de São Paulo, Brasil. Assim, amostras de pulmão e intestino delgado de 111 morcegos oriundos de 23 municípios do estado de São Paulo foram obtidas e identificadas em 12 espécies diferentes pela amplificação e sequenciamento de 710 pb do gene mitocondrial COI. As amostras foram processadas buscando a amplificação por RT-PCR de um fragmento de 245 pb do gene da proteína da Matriz (M) dos IAV; e amplificação por RT-nPCR de um fragmento de 602 e 440 pb do gene que codifica a RNA polimerase dependente de RNA (RpRd) dos coronavírus. O limite de detecção de cada PCR também foi determinado. Não foi observada amplificação em nenhuma das amostras testadas para coronavírus e IAV. O limite inferior de detecção das reações foi determinado em 4,59 cópias genômicas/µL para a RT-PCR de IAV, e 3,53x103 copias genômicas/µL para a RT-nPCR de coronavírus. Embora tenha se demostrado que os morcegos albergam um grande número de patógenos, os resultados do presente estudo apoiam a teoria de que a circulação de vírus em morcegos na natureza muitas vezes é baixa, e de que a nossa compreensão da complexa dinâmica infecciosa destes vírus em condições selvagens ainda é limitada.

Bats constitute an important group of virus reservoirs of public health importance. The reasons for this are several, such as wide diversity, extensive distribution, longevity, adaptation to altered ecosystems, great trophic diversity, habitat diversity, ability to fly long distances, and the high interaction between species both of the same order and among others mammal species, including humans. Hundreds of viruses have been associated with bats, including influenza viruses and coronaviruses. This type of long-standing virus-host association may have originated through co-evolution processes. Thus, early detection and characterization of these viruses in their natural hosts could help to better understand spillover phenomena in humans, such as what happened recently with SARS-CoV-2. This study aimed to detect by molecular methods the presence of alpha influenza virus (IAV) and coronavirus (Orthocoronavirinae) in non-hematophagous bats collected in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. Thus, samples of lung and small intestine from 111 bats from 23 cities in the state of São Paulo were obtained and identified in 12 different species by amplification and sequencing of 710 bp of the mitochondrial COI gene. Samples were processed seeking amplification by RT-PCR of a 245 bp fragment of the IAV Matrix (M) protein gene; and amplification by RT-nPCR of a 602 and 440 bp fragment of the gene encoding the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RpRd) of the coronaviruses. The detection limit of each PCR was also determined. Amplification was not observed in any of the samples tested for coronavirus and IAV. The lower limit of detection of reactions was determined as 4.59 genomic copies/µL for IAV RT-PCR, and 3.53x103 genomic copies/µL for coronavirus RT-nPCR. Although bats have been shown to harbor a large number of pathogens, the results of the present study support the theory that virus circulation in bats in the wild is often low, and that our understanding of the complex infectious dynamics of these viruses in wild conditions is still limited.

Morphometry of Cornops aquaticum (Orthoptera: Acrididae: Leptysminae) in the Pantanal of Mato Grosso, Brazil / Morfometria de Cornops aquaticum (Orthoptera: Acrididae: Leptysminae) no Pantanal de Mato Grosso, Brasil

Insects show morphometric variations associated with the environment that may be the result of phenotypic response or genetic inheritance, or both. Thereby, studies that emphasise the variability in body size are very useful for understanding the dynamics and the stability of ecological systems. Cornops aquaticum (Bruner, 1906) (Acrididae) is a semi-aquatic grasshopper, distributed from the southeast of Mexico to the south of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, and is intimately associated with the aquatic macrophytes Eichhornia spp. and Pontederia spp. In its wide habitat distribution, C. aquaticum shows variations in its life cycle and morphometric differences that were observed suggesting geographic and host plant influence. Considering these findings, this study aimed to find out the morphometric characteristics of this species at the Pantanal of Poconé MT, using the protocol of the project “HICWA Host-Insect Coevolution on Waterhyacinth”, as well as to assess possible differences in each stage of development between the sexes and among seasonal periods (flood, high water, low water and dry). During 12 months a total of 600 individuals were collected in monthly collections of 50 grasshoppers, and of this total, 261 were adults and 339 nymphs. The following measurements were taken: total length (A); body length (B); wing length (I) and measurement of the hind femur (H). The results showed that both male and female have different measurements but not correlated with seasonal periods. The average obtained for each character and the seasonality showed the highest values during the flood period. In nymphs, the measurement of the posterior femur presented the lower variation between individuals and characters.(AU)

Insetos apresentam variações morfométricas associadas ao ambiente que podem ser resultado tanto de respostas fenotípicas, quanto da herança genética, ou de ambos. Assim, estudos que enfatizam a variabilidade no tamanho do corpo do inseto são de grande utilidade para o entendimento da dinâmica e da estabilidade dos sistemas ecológicos. Cornops aquaticum (Bruner, 1906) (Acrididae) é um gafanhoto semi-aquático, distribuído desde o sudeste do México até o sul da província de Buenos Aires, Argentina, demonstrando íntima associação com macrófitas aquáticas dos gêneros Eichhornia e Pontederia. Em sua ampla distribuição de habitats, C. aquaticum apresenta variações em seu ciclo biológico e diferenças morfométricas que sugerem uma influência tanto geográfica, quanto da planta hospedeira. Diante disto, esse estudo objetivou conhecer as características morfométricas dessa espécie no Pantanal de Poconé (MT), empregando o protocolo do projeto “HICWA Host-Insect Coevolution on Waterhyacinth”, bem como avaliar possíveis diferenças em cada estádio de desenvolvimento entre os sexos e entre os períodos sazonais dessa região (enchente, cheia, vazante e seca). Durante 12 meses foram coletados, mensalmente, 50 gafanhotos, totalizando 600 indivíduos, sendo 261 adultos e 339 ninfas, nos quais foram tomadas as medidas do comprimento total (A); comprimento do corpo (B); comprimento da asa (I) e medida do fêmur posterior (H). Os resultados indicam indivíduos adultos, tanto machos quanto fêmeas, de tamanho variado em todos os períodos sazonais, entretanto, essas variações não estão correlacionadas à sazonalidade. As médias obtidas para cada caracter entre os períodos sazonais demonstraram que houve diferenciação entre as medidas, revelando os maiores valores médios durante a enchente. Em ninfas, a menor variação entre os indivíduos em relação aos outros caracteres avaliados foi encontrada na medida do fêmur posterior.(AU)

Sequenciamento, anotação e análise do genoma de Mycobacterium pinnipedii e genômica comparativa de espécies do Complexo Mycobacterium tuberculosis

O Complexo Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTBC) causa tuberculose em humanos e animais e é composto de 12 espécies bacterianas com diferentes tropismos por hospedeiros e perfis de virulência. O MTBC se originou na África, e evoluiu clonalmente por meio de mutações pontuais e deleções genéticas de até 12Kb. Apesar das variações fenotípicas, sequências homólogas de genomas do MTBC são 99,95% idênticas e transferências horizontais de genes são consideradas ausentes. Estudos compreensivos de genômica comparativa incluindo todas as espécies de MTBC a fim de identificar os determinantes genéticos dessas diferenças fenotípicas não estão disponíveis. Paralelamente, a recente descoberta de uma estirpe relacionada a Mycobacterium pinnipedii infectando múmias peruanas pré-colombianas, isto é, antes da introdução europeia da tuberculose nas Américas, levantou dúvidas quanto ao papel do M. pinnipedii na evolução do MTBC e sobre a co-evolução desses patógenos com populações humanas. Desta forma, esta dissertação tem como objetivos: (i) sequenciar e anotar os genomas completos de estirpes de M. pinnipedii isoladas de um leão marinho no Brasil e compará-los com outras estirpes da mesma espécie depositadas em bancos de dados públicos; (ii) produzir uma avaliação de genômica comparativa de todos as espécies descritas do MTBC a fim de identificar genes relacionados à virulência e à adaptabilidade ao hospedeiro. No primeiro estudo, foi realizado o sequenciamento dos genomas completos de dois isolados de M. pinnipedii obtidos da carcaça de um leão marinho (Otaria flavescens) encontrada no Rio Grande do Sul. Análises comparativas das mutações encontradas nesses genomas indica que esse animal estava infectado por duas estirpes diferentes desta bactéria. Este achado constitui o primeiro relato de infecção mista por M. pinipedii nesta espécie hospedeira e sugere que o patógeno é altamente endêmico na população de origem deste animal. Em contraste com estirpes de M. tuberculosis, a genômica comparativa entre estirpes modernas e antigas de M. pinnipedii depositadas em bancos de dados públicos indica proteomas altamente conservados e a ocorrência de um decaimento gênico através de deleções e pseudogenização, em um processo ativo de redução do genoma que vem ocorrendo há, pelo menos, 1.000 anos. Por fim, duas linhagens filogenéticas, modernas de M. pinnipedii foram detectadas globalmente, circunscritas por geografia e, consequentemente, por espécies hospedeiras. No segundo estudo, o objetivo foi investigar a presença e conservação de epítopos de células T e fatores de virulência no genoma core, acessório e espécie específico de 205 estirpes do MTBC. A estrutura do pan-genoma do MTBC mostra que a maioria das proteínas (832.234/866.916, 96,00%) está no genoma core, que é composto por proteínas importantes para a sobrevivência bacteriana. A análise da arquitetura do genoma acessório de MTBC com a distribuição dos epítopos mostrou, pela primeira vez, um mecanismo de variação antigênica de epítopos de células T baseado na perda de genes. Adicionalmente, foi possível observar variações significativas na quantidade de genes relacionados aos fatores de virulência, principalmente em estirpes de M. pinnipedii e M. africanum, sugerindo que a perda gênica relacionada à virulência possui importante papel nos fenótipos bacterianos. Em conclusão, os resultados apresentados contribuem para o entendimento da interação patógeno-hospedeiro de M. pinnipedii e outros membros do MTBC, sugerindo marcadores genéticos importantes dessa interação, e elucidando efeitos de pressões seletivas na determinação dos fenótipos de adaptabilidade hospedeira e virulência do grupo clonal MTBC.

The Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex (MTBC) causes tuberculosis in humans and animals and is composed of 12 bacterial species with different host tropisms and virulence profiles. MTBC originated in Africa and evolved clonally through point mutations and genetic deletions of up to 12Kb. Despite phenotypic variations, homologous sequences of MTBC genomes are 99.95% identical and horizontal gene transfers are considered absent. Comprehensive comparative genomics studies including all MTBC species to identify the genetic determinants of these phenotypic differences are not available. At the same time, the recent discovery of a strain related to Mycobacterium pinnipedii infecting pre-Columbian Peruvian mummies, i.e. prior to the European introduction of tuberculosis in the Americas, raised doubts about the role of M. pinnipedii in the evolution of MTBC and the co-evolution of these pathogens with human populations. Thus, the aims of this study were to: (i) sequence and annotate the complete genomes of M. pinnipedii strains isolated from a sea lion in Brazil and compare them with other strains of the same species deposited in public databases; (ii) produce a comparative genomic evaluation of all described MTBC species to identify genes related to virulence and host adaptability. In the first study we sequenced the complete genomes of two M. pinnipedii isolates obtained from the carcass of a sea lion (Otaria flavescens) found in Rio Grande do Sul. Comparative analysis of mutations found in these genomes indicates that this animal was infected with two different strains of this bacterium. This finding is the first report of mixed M. pinipedii infection in this host species and suggests that the pathogen is highly endemic in the source population of this animal. In contrast to M. tuberculosis strains, the comparative genomics of ancient and modern M. pinnipedii strains deposited in public databases indicate highly conserved proteomes and the occurrence of gene decay through deletions and pseudogenization in an active process of genome reduction occurring for at least 1,000 years. Finally, two modern phylogenetic strains of M. pinnipedii were detected globally, circumscribed by geography and, consequently, by host species. In the second study, the aim was to investigate the presence and conservation of T cell epitopes and virulence factors in the core, accessory and strain-specific genomes of 205 MTBC strains. The MTBC pan-genome structure shows that most proteins (832,234/866,916, 96.00%) are in the core genome, which is composed of proteins important for bacterial survival. Analysis of the MTBC accessory genome architecture with epitope distribution showed, for the first time, a mechanism of antigenic T cell epitope variation based on gene loss. Additionally, it was possible to observe significant variations in the number of genes related to virulence factors, mainly in M. pinnipedii and Mycobacterium africanum strains, suggesting that virulence-related gene loss plays an important role in determining bacterial phenotypes. In conclusion, the results presented contribute to the understanding of the pathogen-host interaction of M. pinnipedii and other MTBC members, suggesting important genetic markers of this interaction, and elucidating the effects of selective pressures in the determination of host adaptability and virulence phenotypes of the clonal group MTBC.

New record of a very specialized interaction: myrcidris epicharis Ward 1990 (Pseudomyrmecinae) and its myrmecophyte host Myrcia madida McVaugh (Myrtaceae) in Brazilian Meridional Amazon

In this study we present a new record of a plant-animal interaction: the mutualistic relationship between the specialist plant-ant Myrcidris epicharis Ward, 1990 (Pseudomyrmecinae) and its myrmecophyte host Myrcia madida McVaugh (Myrtaceae). We observed more than 50 individuals of M. madida occupied by M. epicharis in islands and margins of the Juruena River, in Cotriguaçu, Mato Grosso, Brazil (Meridional Amazon). We discuss a possible distribution of this symbiotic interaction throughout all the riparian forest of the Amazon River basin and its consequence to coevolution of the system.

Neste estudo nós apresentamos um novo registro de uma interação planta-animal: a relação mutualística entre a formiga especialista Myrcidris epicharis Ward, 1990 (Pseudomyrmecinae) e sua mirmecófita hospedeira Myrcia madida McVaugh (Myrtaceae). Observamos mais de 50 plantas de M. madida ocupadas por M. epicharis em ilhas e margens do rio Juruena, no município de Cotriguaçu, Estado de Mato Grosso, Brasil (Amazônia Meridional). Discutimos a possível distribuição dessa interação simbiótica através de florestas ripária da bacia do Rio Amazonas e suas conseqüências para a coevolução do sistema.

New record of a very specialized interaction: Myrcidris epicharis Ward 1990 (Pseudomyrmecinae) and its myrmecophyte host Myrcia madida McVaugh (Myrtaceae) in Brazilian Meridional Amazon / Novo registro de uma interação altamente especializada: Myrcidris epicharis Ward 1990 (Pseudomyrmecinae) e sua mirmecófita hospedeira Myrcia madida McVaugh (Myrtaceae) na Amazônia Meridional brasileira

In this study we present a new record of a plant-animal interaction: the mutualistic relationship between the specialist plantant Myrcidris epicharis Ward, 1990 (Pseudomyrmecinae) and its myrmecophyte host Myrcia madida McVaugh (Myrtaceae). We observed more than 50 individuals of M. madida occupied by M. epicharis in islands and margins of the Juruena River, in Cotriguaçu, Mato Grosso, Brazil (Meridional Amazon). We discuss a possible distribution of this symbiotic interaction throughout all the riparian forest of the Amazon River basin and its consequence to coevolution of the system.

Neste estudo nós apresentamos um novo registro de uma interação planta-animal: a relação mutualística entre a formiga especialista Myrcidris epicharis Ward, 1990 (Pseudomyrmecinae) e sua mirmecófita hospedeira Myrcia madida McVaugh (Myrtaceae). Observamos mais de 50 plantas de M. madida ocupadas por M. epicharis em ilhas e margens do rio Juruena, no município de Cotriguaçu, Estado de Mato Grosso, Brasil (Amazônia Meridional). Discutimos a possível distribuição dessa interação simbiótica através de florestas ripária da bacia do Rio Amazonas e suas conseqüências para a coevolução do sistema.

How specialists can be generalists: resolving the "parasite paradox" and implications for emerging infectious disease

The parasite paradox arises from the dual observations that parasites (broadly construed, including phytophagous insects) are resource specialists with restricted host ranges, and yet shifts onto relatively unrelated hosts are common in the phylogenetic diversification of parasite lineages and directly observable in ecological time. We synthesize the emerging solution to this paradox: phenotypic flexibility and phylogenetic conservatism in traits related to resource use, grouped under the term ecological fitting, provide substantial opportunities for rapid host switching in changing environments, in the absence of the evolution of novel host-utilization capabilities. We discuss mechanisms behind ecological fitting, its implications for defining specialists and generalists, and briefly review empirical examples of host shifts in the context of ecological fitting. We conclude that host shifts via ecological fitting provide the fuel for the expansion phase of the recently proposed oscillation hypothesis of host range and speciation, and, more generally, the generation of novel combinations of interacting species within the geographic mosaic theory of coevolution. Finally, we conclude that taxon pulses, driven by climate change and large-scale ecological perturbation are drivers of biotic mixing and resultant ecological fitting, which leads to increased rates of rapid host switching, including the agents of Emerging Infectious Disease.

How specialists can be generalists: resolving the "parasite paradox" and implications for emerging infectious disease

The parasite paradox arises from the dual observations that parasites (broadly construed, including phytophagous insects) are resource specialists with restricted host ranges, and yet shifts onto relatively unrelated hosts are common in the phylogenetic diversification of parasite lineages and directly observable in ecological time. We synthesize the emerging solution to this paradox: phenotypic flexibility and phylogenetic conservatism in traits related to resource use, grouped under the term ecological fitting, provide substantial opportunities for rapid host switching in changing environments, in the absence of the evolution of novel host-utilization capabilities. We discuss mechanisms behind ecological fitting, its implications for defining specialists and generalists, and briefly review empirical examples of host shifts in the context of ecological fitting. We conclude that host shifts via ecological fitting provide the fuel for the expansion phase of the recently proposed oscillation hypothesis of host range and speciation, and, more generally, the generation of novel combinations of interacting species within the geographic mosaic theory of coevolution. Finally, we conclude that taxon pulses, driven by climate change and large-scale ecological perturbation are drivers of biotic mixing and resultant ecological fitting, which leads to increased rates of rapid host switching, including the agents of Emerging Infectious Disease.

How specialists can be generalists: resolving the "parasite paradox" and implications for emerging infectious disease

The parasite paradox arises from the dual observations that parasites (broadly construed, including phytophagous insects) are resource specialists with restricted host ranges, and yet shifts onto relatively unrelated hosts are common in the phylogenetic diversification of parasite lineages and directly observable in ecological time. We synthesize the emerging solution to this paradox: phenotypic flexibility and phylogenetic conservatism in traits related to resource use, grouped under the term ecological fitting, provide substantial opportunities for rapid host switching in changing environments, in the absence of the evolution of novel host-utilization capabilities. We discuss mechanisms behind ecological fitting, its implications for defining specialists and generalists, and briefly review empirical examples of host shifts in the context of ecological fitting. We conclude that host shifts via ecological fitting provide the fuel for the expansion phase of the recently proposed oscillation hypothesis of host range and speciation, and, more generally, the generation of novel combinations of interacting species within the geographic mosaic theory of coevolution. Finally, we conclude that taxon pulses, driven by climate change and large-scale ecological perturbation are drivers of biotic mixing and resultant ecological fitting, which leads to increased rates of rapid host switching, including the agents of Emerging Infectious Disease.

ECTOPARASITOS DE MORCEGOS (CHIROPTERA) - ANÁLISES ENTRE SUPRACOMUNIDADES EM ÁREAS DE MATA CILIAR, FLORESTA ATLÂNTICA, ESTADO DO RIO DE JANEIRO

Pouco se conhece dos aspectos ecológicos da maioria das espécies de ectoparasitos de morcegos, da relação destes com o hospedeiro e como os fatores ambientais e/ou do próprio hospedeiro agem na variação de suas populações. Morcegos albergam uma grande variedade de ectoparasitos, dentre eles, as moscas Streblidae e os ácaros Spinturnicidae. Esses ectoparasitos são hematófagos, exclusivos de morcegos e mantem uma forte relação de especificidade e coevolução com morcegos Phyllostomidae, o que os torna bons taxa para inferir a respeito de possíveis variações entre áreas. Considerando que áreas com diferentes características de paisagem possam determinar diferenças no ectoparasitismo de Streblidae e Spinturnicidae nos morcegos Phyllostomidae foi realizado um estudo das composições das assembleias e dos componentes das populações e dos componentes das comunidades de três áreas de mata ciliar inseridasno bioma Mata Atlântica, município de Nova Iguaçu, região do Tinguá, Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil. Duas áreas na zona de amortecimento da Reserva Biológica do Tinguá, uma área agrícola, Takume, e uma área de reflorestamento, Canavarro, e uma área no interior da Reserva Biologica do Tinguá, Rebio, considerada como a área mais preservada. O esforço amostral foi similar nas três áreas, com amostragens mensais, totalizando 12 noites em cada área, entre maio de 2011 e abril de 2012. Foram encontradas 22 espécies de morcegos Phyllostomidae, 24 espécies de moscas Streblidae e cinco de ácaros Spinturnicidae no computo geral das três áreas. A Rebio apresentou as maiores riquezas de morcegos e ectoparasitos, enquanto que Canavarro apresentou as maiores abundâncias de indivíduos e dos índices parasitológicos de prevalência, intensidade e abundância média de infestação. As maiores riquezas da Rebio foram atribuídas ao maior grau de preservação da área que permitiu a maior riqueza de morcegos e assim de seus ectoparasitos associados. As maiores abundâncias, assim como os maiores índices parasitológicos do Canavarro foram atribuídos à elevada abundância de duas espécies de morcegos, Artibeus lituratus e Sturnira lilium. Ambas as espécies são comumente encontradas infestadas tanto por espécimes de Streblidae como por espécimes de Spinturnicidae. Os dados reforçam a idéia de alta especificidade destes ectoparasitos com seus hospedeiros. Já que o parasitismo das áreas acompanhou as variações das assembleias de morcegos, não demonstrando variações que poderiam estar associadas a outras variáveis que não seus hospedeiros preferenciais.

Few is known of the ecological aspects of most species of ectoparasites of bats, their relationship with the host and how environmental factors and/or the host itself act on the variation of their populations. Bats are home to a wide variety of ectoparasites, including the Streblidae flies and Spinturnicidae mites. These ectoparasites are haematophagous, exclusive of bats and maintains a strong relationship specificity and coevolution with phyllostomid bats, which become them good taxa to infer about possible variations between areas. Whereas areas with different landscape characteristics to determine differences in parasitism of Streblidae and Spinturnicidae in phyllostomid bats was realized a study of the compositions of the assemblage and components of populations and components of communities of three areas of riparian forest inserted on Atlantic Forest, Nova Iguaçu city, Tinguá region, State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Two areas in the buffer zone of Biological Tinguá Reserve, an agricultural area, Takume, and a reforestation area, Canavarro, and an area in within the Biological Reserve of Tinguá, Rebio, considered the most preserved area. The sampling effort was similar in all three areas, with monthly sampling, a total of 12 nights in each area, between May 2011 and April 2012.It was registerd 22 species of bats phyllostomid, 24 species of bat flies Streblidae and five Spinturnicidae mites total of the three areas. The Rebio had the highest richness of bats and ectoparasites, while Canavarro had the greatest abundance of individuals and parasitological rates, prevalence, intensity and mean abundance of infestation. The greatest richness of Rebio was attributed to the greater degree of preservation of the area that allowed highest richness of bats and thus their associated ectoparasites. The highest abundance, as well as the highest parasitological indices on Canavarro was attributed to the high abundance of two species of bats, Artibeus lituratus and Sturnira lilium. Both species are commonly found infested by specimens of Streblidae and Spinturnicidae. The data reinforce the idea of high specificity of these ectoparasites with their hosts. Since the parasitism of the areas followed the variations of bats assembleges, showing no variations that could be associated with variables other than their preferred hosts.

New host records of Aglaomelissa duckei and a compilation of host associations of Ericrocidini bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae)

For the first time, confirmed host records are reported for the monotypic Ericrocidini genus Aglaomelissa Snelling & Brooks, 1985. Aglaomelissa duckei (Friese, 1906) emerged from trap-nests of Centris (Heterocentris) analis (Fabricius, 1804) and C. (Heterocentris) terminata Smith, 1874 from two sites in the Brazilian Amazonian region. The parasitism ratio caused by A. duckei was high, varying from 80 to 100% of the brood cells in a single trap-nest. Also, a compilation of the known host records for the species of Ericrocidini is presented and host-parasite associations are discussed. Host associations are known for seven of the 11 genera and about 17 of the 42 species of the tribe, involving a total of 34 confirmed or putative host species of Centridini bees. All species of the tribe are known to attack only nests of Centris Fabricius, 1804, except Mesoplia rufipes (Perty, 1833) that also parasitizes nests of Epicharis Klug, 1807. Although the phylogenetic relationships within Ericrocidini and among the subgenera of Centris are not well resolved, the current knowledge of the host-parasite associations points to a relatively high degree of specificity and possible coevolution between them.