Mapping wood volume in seasonally dry vegetation of Caatinga in Bahia State, Brazil

The Caatinga biome in Brazil comprises the largest and most continuous expanse of the seasonally dry tropical forest (SDTF) worldwide; nevertheless, it is among the most threatened and least studied, despite its ecological and biogeographical importance. The spatial distribution of volumetric wood stocks in the Caatinga and the relationship with environmental factors remain unknown. Therefore, this study intends to quantify and analyze the spatial distribution of wood volume as a function of environmental variables in Caatinga vegetation in Bahia State, Brazil. Volumetric estimates were obtained at the plot and fragment level. The multiple linear regression techniques were adopted, using environmental variables in the area as predictors. Spatial modeling was performed using the geostatistical kriging approach with the model residuals. The model developed presented a reasonable fit for the volume m3 ha with r2 of 0.54 and Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) of 10.9 m3 ha­1. The kriging of ordinary residuals suggested low error estimates in unsampled locations and balance in the under and overestimates of the model. The regression kriging approach provided greater detailing of the global wood volume stock map, yielding volume estimates that ranged from 0.01 to 109 m3 ha­1. Elevation, mean annual temperature, and precipitation of the driest month are strong environmental predictors for volume estimation. This information is necessary to development action plans for sustainable management and use of the Caatinga SDTF in Bahia State, Brazil.(AU)

Mapping of soil chemical attributes in pasture areas in the Cerrado of Piauí, Brazil / Mapeamento dos atributos químicos do solo em áreas de pastagens no cerrado piauiense

The low natural fertility and compaction of agricultural soils in the Cerrado are the main limitations for agricultural production. Changes in management systems are necessary to optimize the use of natural resources. The objective of this study was to map and evaluate the presence of penetration resistance and its relationship with soil chemical attributes in pasture areas in the Cerrado of Piauí. The experiment was carried out in the municipality of Corrente-PI, Brazil. The areawas divided into two sub-areas of 0.5 ha each: the first is remaining vegetation and the second is pasture. Fifty soil samples were collected in the 0.00-0.20 and 0.20-0.40 mlayers, with a sampling grid of 10 x 10 m. The pHin water, organic matter, calcium, magnesium,and soil penetration resistance were analyzed. The introduction of animals in the pasture area increased soil compaction by 2%. Chemical attributes, pH, organic matter, calcium and magnesium vary according to soil compaction by 2%. The native forest area has soil penetration resistance at acceptable levels (<2MPa)and availability of nutrientsat adequate levels. The maps of variability of organic matter, calcium, magnesium and penetration resistanceshowed the heterogeneity of the areas, allowing decisions based on specific management zones, localized application of nutrients and decompaction,and recovery of areas with inefficient management.(AU)

A baixa fertilidade natural e a compactação dos solos agrícolas do cerrado são as principais limitações para produção agropecuária. Mudanças nos sistemas de manejo são necessárias para otimização do uso de recursos naturais. O objetivo do estudo foi mapear e avaliar a presença da resistência a penetração e sua relação com os atributos químicos do solo em áreas de pastagens no cerrado piauiense. O experimento foi realizado no município de Corrente-PI. A área foi dividida em duas subáreas de 0,5 ha cada: a primeira é de vegetação remanescente, e a segunda de pastagem. Foram retiradas 50 amostras de solos nas camadas: 0.00-0.20 e 0.20-0.40 m, com malha amostral de 10 x 10 m. Foramanalisados, pH em água, matéria orgânica, cálcio, magnésio e resistência do solo a penetração. A introdução de animais na área de pastagem, aumentou a compactação do solo em 2%. Os atributos químicos, pH, matéria orgânica, cálcio e magnésio, variam de conforme a compactação do solo em 2%. A área de mata nativa apresenta resistência do solo à penetração em níveis aceitáveis (<2MPa)e disponibilidade de nutrientes em níveis adequados. Os mapas de variabilidade espacial mostraram a heterogeneidade das áreas,permitindo decisões baseadas em zonas específicas de manejo, aplicação de nutrientes e descompactação localizada e recuperação das áreascom manejo ineficiente.(AU)

Digital elevation modeling through forests: the challenge of the Amazon / Modelagem digital de elevação através das florestas: o desafio da Amazônia

Elevation mapping at ground level is challenging in forested areas like the Amazon region, which is mostly covered by dense rainforest. The most common techniques, i.e. photogrammetry and short wavelength radar, provide elevations at canopy level at best, while most applications require ground elevations. Even lidar and P-band radar, which can penetrate foliage and measure elevations at ground level, have some limitations which are analyzed in here. We address three research questions: To what extent can a terrain model be replaced by a more easily available canopy-level surface model for topography-based applications? How can the elevation be obtained at ground level through forest? Can a priori knowledge of general continental relief properties be used to compensate for the limits of measurement methods in the presence of forest?(AU)

O mapeamento da elevação ao nível do solo é um desafio em áreas florestadas como a região amazônica, coberta principalmente por floresta tropical densa. As técnicas mais comuns, i.e., a fotogrametria e o radar de comprimento de onda curto, fornecem elevações ao nível do dossel na melhor das hipóteses, enquanto a maioria das aplicações requer a elevação do solo. Mesmo o lidar e o radar de banda P, que podem penetrar a folhagem e medir elevações ao nível do solo, têm algumas limitações que são analisadas aqui. Abordamos três questões: Até que ponto um modelo de terreno pode ser substituído por um modelo de superfície ao nível do dossel, mais facilmente disponível, para aplicações baseadas na topografia? Como a elevação ao nível do solo pode ser obtida através da floresta? O conhecimento a priori das propriedades gerais do relevo continental pode ser usado para compensar os limites dos métodos de medição na presença de floresta?(AU)

New record of Cepa apeca (Diptera, Syrphidae, Eristalinae, Merodontini) in the Andean-Amazonian region of Colombia and expansion of its geographic range / Nuevo registro de Cepa apeca (Diptera, Syrphidae, Eristalinae, Merodontini) en la región Andino-Amazónica de Colombia, con expansión de su rango geográfico

Flower flies of the genus Cepa are endemic to the Neotropical region and Cepa apeca is currently known only from Costa Rica. Here we report the first record of C. apeca in Colombia based on a single female collected using a canopy trap in a dense secondary forest in a mountainous ecosystem in the locality of Vereda San Francisco, municipality of Florencia-Caquetá, at an altitude of 643 m.a.s.l. This finding constitutes the first record of the genus Cepa in Colombia and expands the geographic range of Cepa apeca by approximately 1,500 km (straight line) southwards to South America. Our finding represents the southernmost occurrence of the species and contributes to the incipient knowledge on the Diptera diversity in the Colombian Andean-Amazonian region.(AU)

Las moscas de las flores del género Cepa son endémicas de la región Neotropical y Cepa apeca solo se conoce actualmente en Costa Rica. Aquí reportamos el primer registro de C. apeca en Colombia, basado en una sola hembra recolectada usando una trampa de dosel en un bosque denso secundario en un ecosistema montañoso en la localidad de Vereda San Francisco, município de Florencia-Caquetá, a una altitud de 643 m.s.n.m. Este hallazgo constituye el primer registro del género Cepa en Colombia y amplía el rango geográfico de Cepa apeca en aproximadamente 1.500 km (en línea recta) hacia el sur en Sudamérica. Nuestro hallazgo representa la ocurrencia más austral de la especie y contribuye al conocimiento incipiente sobre la diversidad de dípteros en la región Andino-Amazonica colombiana.(AU)

New record of Cepa apeca (Diptera, Syrphidae, Eristalinae, Merodontini) in the Andean-Amazonian region of Colombia and expansion of its geographic range / Nuevo registro de Cepa apeca (Diptera, Syrphidae, Eristalinae, Merodontini) en la región Andino-Amazónica de Colombia, con expansión de su rango geográfico

Flower flies of the genus Cepa are endemic to the Neotropical region and Cepa apeca is currently known only from Costa Rica. Here we report the first record of C. apeca in Colombia based on a single female collected using a canopy trap in a dense secondary forest in a mountainous ecosystem in the locality of Vereda San Francisco, municipality of Florencia-Caquetá, at an altitude of 643 m.a.s.l. This finding constitutes the first record of the genus Cepa in Colombia and expands the geographic range of Cepa apeca by approximately 1,500 km (straight line) southwards to South America. Our finding represents the southernmost occurrence of the species and contributes to the incipient knowledge on the Diptera diversity in the Colombian Andean-Amazonian region.

Las moscas de las flores del género Cepa son endémicas de la región Neotropical y Cepa apeca solo se conoce actualmente en Costa Rica. Aquí reportamos el primer registro de C. apeca en Colombia, basado en una sola hembra recolectada usando una trampa de dosel en un bosque denso secundario en un ecosistema montañoso en la localidad de Vereda San Francisco, município de Florencia-Caquetá, a una altitud de 643 m.s.n.m. Este hallazgo constituye el primer registro del género Cepa en Colombia y amplía el rango geográfico de Cepa apeca en aproximadamente 1.500 km (en línea recta) hacia el sur en Sudamérica. Nuestro hallazgo representa la ocurrencia más austral de la especie y contribuye al conocimiento incipiente sobre la diversidad de dípteros en la región Andino-Amazonica colombiana.

Scrotal thermographic profile and seminal characteristics of Mangalarga Marchador stallions bred in the Atlantic Rainforest biome / [Perfil termográfico escrotal e características seminais de garanhões Mangalarga Marchador criados no bioma Mata Atlântica]

The objective of this study was to determine the scrotal thermographic profile and to verify the influence of temperature and humidity of the humid tropical climate on testicular temperature and seminal quality of Mangalarga Marchador stallions. The thermal profiles of the proximal, middle, and distal zones of the testicles and total surface temperature (TSTT) were recorded using an FLIR E60bx thermal imager. The average air temperature (°C) and relative humidity (%) were obtained 1, 5, 9, 33, and 66 days before semen collection and showed a mean value of 26.5±2.4 and 80.4±6.0 respectively. The scrotal surface temperature was close to 34°C and there was no variation with the age of the stallion, reproductive activity, and characteristics of the ejaculate (P>0.05). The only significant correlations obtained were between TSTT and minor defects (R = 0.41; P<0.05), between TSTT and total defects (R = 0.46; P<0.01), and between TSTT and percentage of morphologically normal sperm (R = -0.46; P<0.05). It was concluded that the Mangalarga Marchador stallions maintained the testicular temperature within favorable conditions for spermatogenesis, demonstrating the efficiency of testicular thermoregulation mechanisms in the Atlantic Forest biome.

O objetivo deste estudo foi determinar o perfil termográfico escrotal e verificar a influência da temperatura e da umidade do clima tropical úmido na temperatura testicular e na qualidade seminal de garanhões Mangalarga Marchador. Os perfis térmicos das zonas proximal, média e distal dos testículos e a temperatura da superfície total (TSTT) foram registrados usando-se um termovisor FLIR E60bx. A temperatura média do ar (° C) e a umidade relativa (%) foram obtidas um, cinco, nove, 33 e 66 dias antes da coleta de sêmen e apresentaram valor médio de 26,5 ± 2,4 e 80,4 ± 6,0, respectivamente. A temperatura da superfície escrotal foi próxima a 34°C, e não houve variação com a idade do garanhão, a atividade reprodutiva e as características do ejaculado (P>0,05). As únicas correlações significativas obtidas foram entre TSTT e defeitos menores (R=0,41; P<0,05), entre TSTT e defeitos totais (R=0,46; P<0,01), e entre TSTT e porcentagem de espermatozoides morfologicamente normais (R=-0,46; P<0,05). Concluiu-se que os garanhões Mangalarga Marchador mantiveram a temperatura testicular dentro de condições favoráveis para a espermatogênese, demonstrando a eficiência dos mecanismos de termorregulação testicular no bioma Mata Atlântica.

Mapping the habitat suitability of Andira humilis Mart. ex Benth. (Fabaceae) as a means to detect its associated galling species in Brazil

Host plant species have very specific interconnection with galling species. Here, we estimate the potential distribution of the host plant species Andira humilis Mart. ex Benth. (Fabaceae) to consequently locate the potential distribution ranges of its galling species Lopesia andirae Garcia, Lima, Calado, and Guimarães (2017) based on ecological requirements. The ecological niche model was built using Maxent v.3.4.1k, an algorithm that estimates species’ distributions. We found suitable habitats for L. andirae encompassing areas of the Cerrado, Caatinga and Atlantic Forest. Annual mean temperature (70.2%) and temperature annual range (13.9%) were the most critical factors shaping A. humilis and necessarily L. andirae. Our results can guide taxonomists and ecologists regarding the delineation of sampling areas as well as conservation strategies for this ecological interaction.

Mapping the habitat suitability of Andira humilis Mart. ex Benth. (Fabaceae) as a means to detect its associated galling species in Brazil

Host plant species have very specific interconnection with galling species. Here, we estimate the potential distribution of the host plant species Andira humilis Mart. ex Benth. (Fabaceae) to consequently locate the potential distribution ranges of its galling species Lopesia andirae Garcia, Lima, Calado, and Guimarães (2017) based on ecological requirements. The ecological niche model was built using Maxent v.3.4.1k, an algorithm that estimates species distributions. We found suitable habitats for L. andirae encompassing areas of the Cerrado, Caatinga and Atlantic Forest. Annual mean temperature (70.2%) and temperature annual range (13.9%) were the most critical factors shaping A. humilis and necessarily L. andirae. Our results can guide taxonomists and ecologists regarding the delineation of sampling areas as well as conservation strategies for this ecological interaction.(AU)

Distribuição geográfica de Scinax crospedospilus (Anura, Hylidae), incluindo novos registros na Mata Atlântica de Minas Gerais (Brasil) / Geographic distribution of Scinax crospedospilus (Anura, Hylidae), including new records in the Atlantic Forest of Minas Gerais (Brazil)

A perereca Scinax crospedospilus foi descrita com base em síntipos coletados no vale do rio Paraíba do Sul e posteriormente foi registrada em várias localidades na Mata Atlântica dos estados do Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo e Minas Gerais. Apresenta-se um amplo mapeamento da espécie, baseado em revisão bibliográfica, análise de coleções científicas e amostragens em campo, incluindo novos registros na Mata Atlântica de Minas Gerais. Scinax crospedospilus foi coletado em algumas localidades de Mariana, na borda oriental do Quadrilátero Ferrífero, mostrando-se raro na região. Com a análise de coleções, foram localizados exemplares procedentes de 13 municípios localizados em diversas unidades de relevo. Em campo se observou que S. crospedospilus possui certa tolerância a perturbações do hábitat, realiza reprodução em pequenas represas na borda de floresta alterada e os machos vocalizam à noite sobre árvores e arbustos na margem d’água e, em período vespertino, no dossel de árvores baixas, inclusive dentro de bromélias. Os dados levantados permitiram concluir que S. crospedospilus é endêmico da Mata Atlântica e possui uma ampla distribuição pelo bioma no Sudeste do Brasil.

The tree frog Scinax crospedospilus was described based on syntypes collected from the Paraíba do Sul River valley and later was recorded in various localities in the Atlantic Forest of the Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Minas Gerais states. We present a wide mapping of the species, based on bibliographic review, analysis of scientific collections and field samplings, including new records in the Atlantic Forest of Minas Gerais. Scinax crospedospilus was collected in some localities of Mariana, on the eastern edge of the Quadrilátero Ferrífero, showing itself to be rare in the region. With the analysis of collections, we found specimens of S. crospedospilus from 13 municipalities located in several relief units. In the field, we observed that S. crospedospilus has a certain tolerance to habitat disturbances, breeds in small dams on the edge of altered forest, and the males vocalize over trees and shrubs on the water's edge at night, and in the canopy of low trees, including inside bromeliads, in the afternoon. The data collected allowed us to conclude that S. crospedospilus is endemic to the Atlantic Forest and has a wide distribution in the biome in Southeastern Brazil.

Distribuição geográfica de Scinax crospedospilus (Anura, Hylidae), incluindo novos registros na Mata Atlântica de Minas Gerais (Brasil) / Geographic distribution of Scinax crospedospilus (Anura, Hylidae), including new records in the Atlantic Forest of Minas Gerais (Brazil)

A perereca Scinax crospedospilus foi descrita com base em síntipos coletados no vale do rio Paraíba do Sul e posteriormente foi registrada em várias localidades na Mata Atlântica dos estados do Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo e Minas Gerais. Apresenta-se um amplo mapeamento da espécie, baseado em revisão bibliográfica, análise de coleções científicas e amostragens em campo, incluindo novos registros na Mata Atlântica de Minas Gerais. Scinax crospedospilus foi coletado em algumas localidades de Mariana, na borda oriental do Quadrilátero Ferrífero, mostrando-se raro na região. Com a análise de coleções, foram localizados exemplares procedentes de 13 municípios localizados em diversas unidades de relevo. Em campo se observou que S. crospedospilus possui certa tolerância a perturbações do hábitat, realiza reprodução em pequenas represas na borda de floresta alterada e os machos vocalizam à noite sobre árvores e arbustos na margem dágua e, em período vespertino, no dossel de árvores baixas, inclusive dentro de bromélias. Os dados levantados permitiram concluir que S. crospedospilus é endêmico da Mata Atlântica e possui uma ampla distribuição pelo bioma no Sudeste do Brasil.(AU)

The tree frog Scinax crospedospilus was described based on syntypes collected from the Paraíba do Sul River valley and later was recorded in various localities in the Atlantic Forest of the Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Minas Gerais states. We present a wide mapping of the species, based on bibliographic review, analysis of scientific collections and field samplings, including new records in the Atlantic Forest of Minas Gerais. Scinax crospedospilus was collected in some localities of Mariana, on the eastern edge of the Quadrilátero Ferrífero, showing itself to be rare in the region. With the analysis of collections, we found specimens of S. crospedospilus from 13 municipalities located in several relief units. In the field, we observed that S. crospedospilus has a certain tolerance to habitat disturbances, breeds in small dams on the edge of altered forest, and the males vocalize over trees and shrubs on the water's edge at night, and in the canopy of low trees, including inside bromeliads, in the afternoon. The data collected allowed us to conclude that S. crospedospilus is endemic to the Atlantic Forest and has a wide distribution in the biome in Southeastern Brazil.(AU)

Assessment of TerraClass and MapBiomas data on legend and map agreement for the Brazilian Amazon biome / Avaliação dos dados do TerraClass e do MapBiomas acerca da legenda e concordância dos mapas para o bioma brasileiro Amazônia

Reliable environmental monitoring and evaluation require high-quality maps of land use and land cover. For the Amazon biome, the TerraClass and MapBiomas projects apply different methodologies to create these maps. We evaluated the agreement between land cover and land use maps generated by TerraClass and MapBiomas (Collections 2 and 3) for the Brazilian Amazon biome, from 2004 to 2014. Specifically, we: (1) described both project legends based on the LCCS (Land Cover Classification System); (2) analyzed the differences between their classes; and (3) compared the mapping differences among the Brazilian states that are totally or partially covered by the Amazon biome. We compared the classifications with a per-pixel approach and performed an evaluation based on agreement matrices. The overall agreement between the projects was 87.4% (TerraClass x MapBiomas 2) and 92.0% (TerraClass x MapBiomas 3). We analyzed methodological differences to explain the disagreements in class identification. We conclude that using these maps together without a properly adapted legend is not recommended for the analysis of land use and land cover change. Depending on the application, one mapping system may be more suitable than the other.(AU)

O monitoramento e a avaliação ambiental confiáveis necessitam mapas de alta qualidade de uso e cobertura da terra. Para o bioma Amazônia, os projetos TerraClass e MapBiomas usam diferentes metodologias para criar esses mapas. Nós avaliamos a concordância entre os produtos gerados pelo TerraClass e pelo MapBiomas (Coleções 2 e 3) para o bioma Amazônia, de 2004 a 2014. Mais especificamente: (1) descrevemos as legendas dos projetos com base no LCCS (Land Cover Classification System); (2) analisamos as diferenças entre as classes; e (3) comparamos as diferenças de mapeamento entre os estados brasileiros total ou parcialmente incluídos no bioma Amazônia. As classificações foram comparadas em uma abordagem pixel a pixel e a avaliação foi baseada em matrizes de concordância. A concordância global entre os projetos foi de 87.4% (TerraClass x MapBiomas 2) e 92.0% (TerraClass x MapBiomas 3). Analisamos as diferenças metodológicas entre os projetos para explicar as discordâncias existentes na identificação das classes. Concluimos que a utilização dos produtos dos dois projetos de forma complementar, sem uma apropriada adaptação de legendas, não é recomendada para a análise de mudança de uso e cobertura da terra. Dependendo da aplicação, um sistema de mapeamento pode ser mais adequado do que o outro.(AU)

Preprocessing procedures and supervised classification applied to a database of systematic soil survey

Data Mining techniques play an important role in the prediction of soil spatial distribution in systematic soil surveying, though existing methodologies still lack standardization and a full understanding of their capabilities. The aim of this work was to evaluate the performance of preprocessing procedures and supervised classification approaches for predicting map units from 1:100,000-scale conventional semi-detailed soil surveys. Sheets of the Brazilian National Cartographic System on the 1:50,000 scale, Dois Córregos (Brotas 1:100,000-scale sheet), São Pedro and Laras (Piracicaba 1:100,000-scale sheet) were used for developing models. Soil map information and predictive environmental covariates for the dataset were obtained from the semi-detailed soil survey of the state of São Paulo, from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) 1:50,000-scale topographic sheets and from the 1:750,000-scale geological map of the state of São Paulo. The target variable was a soil map unit of four types: local soil unit name and soil class at three hierarchical levels of the Brazilian System of Soil Classification (SiBCS). Different data preprocessing treatments and four algorithms all having different approaches were also tested. Results showed that composite soil map units were not adequate for the machine learning process. Class balance did not contribute to improving the performance of classifiers. Accuracy values of 78 % and a Kappa index of 0.67 were obtained after preprocessing procedures with Random Forest, the algorithm that performed best. Information from conventional map units of semi-detailed (4th order) 1:100,000 soil survey generated models with values for accuracy, precision, sensitivity, specificity and Kappa indexes that support their use in programs for systematic soil surveying.

Preprocessing procedures and supervised classification applied to a database of systematic soil survey

Data Mining techniques play an important role in the prediction of soil spatial distribution in systematic soil surveying, though existing methodologies still lack standardization and a full understanding of their capabilities. The aim of this work was to evaluate the performance of preprocessing procedures and supervised classification approaches for predicting map units from 1:100,000-scale conventional semi-detailed soil surveys. Sheets of the Brazilian National Cartographic System on the 1:50,000 scale, Dois Córregos (Brotas 1:100,000-scale sheet), São Pedro and Laras (Piracicaba 1:100,000-scale sheet) were used for developing models. Soil map information and predictive environmental covariates for the dataset were obtained from the semi-detailed soil survey of the state of São Paulo, from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) 1:50,000-scale topographic sheets and from the 1:750,000-scale geological map of the state of São Paulo. The target variable was a soil map unit of four types: local soil unit name and soil class at three hierarchical levels of the Brazilian System of Soil Classification (SiBCS). Different data preprocessing treatments and four algorithms all having different approaches were also tested. Results showed that composite soil map units were not adequate for the machine learning process. Class balance did not contribute to improving the performance of classifiers. Accuracy values of 78 % and a Kappa index of 0.67 were obtained after preprocessing procedures with Random Forest, the algorithm that performed best. Information from conventional map units of semi-detailed (4th order) 1:100,000 soil survey generated models with values for accuracy, precision, sensitivity, specificity and Kappa indexes that support their use in programs for systematic soil surveying.(AU)

Soil type spatial prediction from Random Forest: different training datasets, transferability, accuracy and uncertainty assessment

Different uses of soil legacy data such as training dataset as well as the selection of soil environmental covariables could drive the accuracy of machine learning techniques. Thus, this study evaluated the ability of the Random Forest algorithm to predict soil classes from different training datasets and extrapolate such information to a similar area. The following training datasets were extracted from legacy data: a) point data composed of 53 soil samples; b) 30 m buffer around the soil samples, and soil map polygons excluding: c) 20 m; and d) 30 m from the boundaries of polygons. These four datasets were submitted to principal component analysis (PCA) to reduce multidimensionality. Each dataset derived a new one. Different combinations of predictor variables were tested. A total of 52 models were evaluated by means of error of models, prediction uncertainty and external validation for overall accuracy and Kappa index. The best result was obtained by reducing the number of predictors with the PCA along with information from the buffer around the points. Although Random Forest has been considered a robust spatial predictor model, it was clear it is sensitive to different strategies of selecting training dataset. Effort was necessary to find the best training dataset for achieving a suitable level of accuracy of spatial prediction. To identify a specific dataset seems to be better than using a great number of variables or a large volume of training data. The efforts made allowed for the accurate acquisition of a mapped area 15.5 times larger than the reference area.

Soil type spatial prediction from Random Forest: different training datasets, transferability, accuracy and uncertainty assessment

Different uses of soil legacy data such as training dataset as well as the selection of soil environmental covariables could drive the accuracy of machine learning techniques. Thus, this study evaluated the ability of the Random Forest algorithm to predict soil classes from different training datasets and extrapolate such information to a similar area. The following training datasets were extracted from legacy data: a) point data composed of 53 soil samples; b) 30 m buffer around the soil samples, and soil map polygons excluding: c) 20 m; and d) 30 m from the boundaries of polygons. These four datasets were submitted to principal component analysis (PCA) to reduce multidimensionality. Each dataset derived a new one. Different combinations of predictor variables were tested. A total of 52 models were evaluated by means of error of models, prediction uncertainty and external validation for overall accuracy and Kappa index. The best result was obtained by reducing the number of predictors with the PCA along with information from the buffer around the points. Although Random Forest has been considered a robust spatial predictor model, it was clear it is sensitive to different strategies of selecting training dataset. Effort was necessary to find the best training dataset for achieving a suitable level of accuracy of spatial prediction. To identify a specific dataset seems to be better than using a great number of variables or a large volume of training data. The efforts made allowed for the accurate acquisition of a mapped area 15.5 times larger than the reference area.(AU)

Produtos florestais não madeireiros e valoração ambiental da Floresta Nacional de Pacotuba, ES / Non-timber forest products and environmental valuation of the National Forest Pacotuba, ES

Este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar o potencial para extração de produtos florestais não madeireiros (PFNMs) e a valoração ambiental pela disposição a receber dos moradores da zona de amortecimento da Floresta Nacional (FLONA) de Pacotuba, estado do Espírito Santo. Foram aplicados formulários em uma amostra de 78 famílias, na comunidade de Monte Alegre, localizada na zona de amortecimento da FLONA de Pacotuba, para o levantamento etnobotânico de PFNMs e a disposição a receber para manter a cobertura florestal. O mapeamento do uso do solo da FLONA do Pacotuba e da zona de amortecimento foram obtidos por meio de uma imagem Landsat. Foi utilizado o método de valoração contingente por meio dos formulários, para estimar a disposição a receber para manter a cobertura florestal. Na FLONA de Pacotuba existe potencial para produzir PFNMs, com uma oferta principalmente para fins medicinais e ecológicos. O uso do solo demonstra que a FLONA do Pacotuba apresenta um alto percentual de cobertura florestal, no entanto a zona de amortecimento está com alto percentual de pastagem e uso do solo antrópico, sendo o pagamento por serviços ambientais (PSA) uma alternativa para aumentar a cobertura florestal na zona de amortecimento. A disposição a receber para manter a cobertura florestal dos proprietários na zona de amortecimento e na FLONA foi maior do que o PSA do estado do Espírito Santo, o que dificulta a adoção de um programa de pagamentos por serviços ambientais. O PSA do Espírito Santo, por meio do programa Reflorestar, associado ao manejo de PFNMs, principalmente medicinais e ecológicos, seriam alternativas para geração de renda e preservação da cobertura florestal.

This study aimed to evaluate the potential for the extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and environmental valuation by the willingness to receive from the residents of the damping zone of the National Forest (FLONA) of Pacotuba, state of Espírito Santo. Forms were applied in a sample of 78 families, in the community of Monte Alegre, located in the damping zone of the FLONA de Pacotuba, for the NTFPs ethnobotanical survey and the willingness to receive to maintain the forest cover. The mapping use of the soil Pacotuba FLONA and the damping zone were obtained through a Landsat image. The contingent valuation method was used using the forms to estimate the willingness to receive to maintain the forest cover. At FLONA de Pacotuba there is potential to produce NTFPs, with an offer mainly for medicinal and ecological purposes. The use of the soil demonstrates that the FLONA of Pacotuba presents a high percentage of forest cover, however the damping zone is with a high percentage of pasture and use of the soil Anthropic, with the payment for environmental services (PES) an alternative to increase the forest cover in the cushioning zone. The willingness to receive to maintain the forest cover of the owners in the damping zone and in the FLONA was greater than the PES of the state of Espírito Santo, which hinders the adoption of a payment program for environmental services. The PES of Espírito Santo, through the program Reflorestar, associated with the management of NTFPs, mainly medicinal and ecological, would be alternatives for income generation and preservation of the forest cover.

Produtos florestais não madeireiros e valoração ambiental da Floresta Nacional de Pacotuba, ES / Non-timber forest products and environmental valuation of the National Forest Pacotuba, ES

Este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar o potencial para extração de produtos florestais não madeireiros (PFNMs) e a valoração ambiental pela disposição a receber dos moradores da zona de amortecimento da Floresta Nacional (FLONA) de Pacotuba, estado do Espírito Santo. Foram aplicados formulários em uma amostra de 78 famílias, na comunidade de Monte Alegre, localizada na zona de amortecimento da FLONA de Pacotuba, para o levantamento etnobotânico de PFNMs e a disposição a receber para manter a cobertura florestal. O mapeamento do uso do solo da FLONA do Pacotuba e da zona de amortecimento foram obtidos por meio de uma imagem Landsat. Foi utilizado o método de valoração contingente por meio dos formulários, para estimar a disposição a receber para manter a cobertura florestal. Na FLONA de Pacotuba existe potencial para produzir PFNMs, com uma oferta principalmente para fins medicinais e ecológicos. O uso do solo demonstra que a FLONA do Pacotuba apresenta um alto percentual de cobertura florestal, no entanto a zona de amortecimento está com alto percentual de pastagem e uso do solo antrópico, sendo o pagamento por serviços ambientais (PSA) uma alternativa para aumentar a cobertura florestal na zona de amortecimento. A disposição a receber para manter a cobertura florestal dos proprietários na zona de amortecimento e na FLONA foi maior do que o PSA do estado do Espírito Santo, o que dificulta a adoção de um programa de pagamentos por serviços ambientais. O PSA do Espírito Santo, por meio do programa Reflorestar, associado ao manejo de PFNMs, principalmente medicinais e ecológicos, seriam alternativas para geração de renda e preservação da cobertura florestal.(AU)

This study aimed to evaluate the potential for the extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and environmental valuation by the willingness to receive from the residents of the damping zone of the National Forest (FLONA) of Pacotuba, state of Espírito Santo. Forms were applied in a sample of 78 families, in the community of Monte Alegre, located in the damping zone of the FLONA de Pacotuba, for the NTFPs ethnobotanical survey and the willingness to receive to maintain the forest cover. The mapping use of the soil Pacotuba FLONA and the damping zone were obtained through a Landsat image. The contingent valuation method was used using the forms to estimate the willingness to receive to maintain the forest cover. At FLONA de Pacotuba there is potential to produce NTFPs, with an offer mainly for medicinal and ecological purposes. The use of the soil demonstrates that the FLONA of Pacotuba presents a high percentage of forest cover, however the damping zone is with a high percentage of pasture and use of the soil Anthropic, with the payment for environmental services (PES) an alternative to increase the forest cover in the cushioning zone. The willingness to receive to maintain the forest cover of the owners in the damping zone and in the FLONA was greater than the PES of the state of Espírito Santo, which hinders the adoption of a payment program for environmental services. The PES of Espírito Santo, through the program Reflorestar, associated with the management of NTFPs, mainly medicinal and ecological, would be alternatives for income generation and preservation of the forest cover.(AU)

Airborne laser scanning for terrain modeling in the Amazon forest / Escaneamento laser aerotransportado para modelagem de terreno em floresta amazônica

Very few studies have been devoted to understanding the digital terrain model (DTM) creation for Amazon forests. DTM has a special and important role when airborne laser scanning is used to estimate vegetation biomass. We examined the influence of pulse density, spatial resolution, filter algorithms, vegetation density and slope on the DTM quality. Three Amazonian forested areas were surveyed with airborne laser scanning, and each original point cloud was reduced targeting to 20, 15, 10, 8, 6, 4, 2, 1, 0.75, 0.5 and 0.25 pulses per square meter based on a random resampling process. The DTM from resampled clouds was compared with the reference DTM produced from the original LiDAR data by calculating the deviation pixel by pixel and summarizing it through the root mean square error (RMSE). The DTM from resampled clouds were also evaluated considering the level of agreement with the reference DTM. Our study showed a clear trade-off between the return density and the horizontal resolution. Higher forest canopy density demanded higher return density or lower DTM resolution.

São poucos os estudos dedicados a entender a criação de modelo digital de terreno (MDT) para florestas amazônicas. O MDT tem uma importante função quando o escaneamento laser aerotransportado é usado para estimar a biomassa da vegetação. Examinamos a relação da densidade de pulsos, resolução espacial, algoritmos de filtragem, densidade da vegetação e inclinação do terreno com a qualidade do MDT. Três áreas de floresta amazônica foram sobrevoadas usando LiDAR aerotransportado. Cada nuvem de dados original teve sua densidade reduzida objetivando 20; 15; 10; 8; 6; 4; 2; 1; 0,75; 0,5 e 0,25 pulsos por metro quadrado, utilizando um processo de reamostragem aleatória. Os MDTs das nuvens reamostradas foram comparados com o MDT de referência, produzido a partir da nuvem original, calculando o desvio pixel a pixel e resumindo-o por meio do erro padrão da estimativa (RMSE). Os MDTs das nuvens reamostradas também foram avaliados quanto ao nível de correspondência com o MDT de referência. Houve uma clara compensação entre densidade de pontos e resolução horizontal. Dosséis mais densos exigem uma maior densidade de retornos, ou MDT com menor resolução.

Airborne laser scanning for terrain modeling in the Amazon forest / Escaneamento laser aerotransportado para modelagem de terreno em floresta amazônica

Very few studies have been devoted to understanding the digital terrain model (DTM) creation for Amazon forests. DTM has a special and important role when airborne laser scanning is used to estimate vegetation biomass. We examined the influence of pulse density, spatial resolution, filter algorithms, vegetation density and slope on the DTM quality. Three Amazonian forested areas were surveyed with airborne laser scanning, and each original point cloud was reduced targeting to 20, 15, 10, 8, 6, 4, 2, 1, 0.75, 0.5 and 0.25 pulses per square meter based on a random resampling process. The DTM from resampled clouds was compared with the reference DTM produced from the original LiDAR data by calculating the deviation pixel by pixel and summarizing it through the root mean square error (RMSE). The DTM from resampled clouds were also evaluated considering the level of agreement with the reference DTM. Our study showed a clear trade-off between the return density and the horizontal resolution. Higher forest canopy density demanded higher return density or lower DTM resolution.(AU)

São poucos os estudos dedicados a entender a criação de modelo digital de terreno (MDT) para florestas amazônicas. O MDT tem uma importante função quando o escaneamento laser aerotransportado é usado para estimar a biomassa da vegetação. Examinamos a relação da densidade de pulsos, resolução espacial, algoritmos de filtragem, densidade da vegetação e inclinação do terreno com a qualidade do MDT. Três áreas de floresta amazônica foram sobrevoadas usando LiDAR aerotransportado. Cada nuvem de dados original teve sua densidade reduzida objetivando 20; 15; 10; 8; 6; 4; 2; 1; 0,75; 0,5 e 0,25 pulsos por metro quadrado, utilizando um processo de reamostragem aleatória. Os MDTs das nuvens reamostradas foram comparados com o MDT de referência, produzido a partir da nuvem original, calculando o desvio pixel a pixel e resumindo-o por meio do erro padrão da estimativa (RMSE). Os MDTs das nuvens reamostradas também foram avaliados quanto ao nível de correspondência com o MDT de referência. Houve uma clara compensação entre densidade de pontos e resolução horizontal. Dosséis mais densos exigem uma maior densidade de retornos, ou MDT com menor resolução.(AU)

Identifying forest ecosystem regions for agricultural use and conservation

Balancing agricultural needs with the need to protect biodiverse environments presents a challenge to forestry management. An imbalance in resource production and ecosystem regulation often leads to degradation or deforestation such as when excessive cultivation damages forest biodiversity. Lack of information on geospatial biodiversity may hamper forest ecosystems. In particular, this may be an issue in areas where there is a strong need to reassign land to food production. It is essential to identify and protect those parts of the forest that are key to its preservation. This paper presents a strategy for choosing suitable areas for agricultural management based on a geospatial variation of Shannon's vegetation diversity index (SHDI). This index offers a method for selecting areas with low levels of biodiversity and carbon stock accumulation ability, thereby reducing the negative environmental impact of converting forest land to agricultural use. The natural forest ecosystem of the controversial 1997 Ex-Mega Rice Project (EMRP) in Indonesia is used as an example. Results showed that the geospatial pattern of biodiversity can be accurately derived using kriging analysis and then effectively applied to the delineation of agricultural production areas using an ecological threshold of SHDI. A prediction model that integrates a number of species and families and average annual rainfall was developed by principal component regression (PCR) to obtain a geospatial distribution map of biodiversity. Species richness was found to be an appropriate indicator of SHDI and able to assist in the identification of areas for agricultural use and natural forest management.