Identification of the myodural bridge in a venomous snake, the gloydius shedaoensis: what is the functional significance? / Identificación del puente miodural en una serpiente venenosa, gloydius shedaoensis: ¿cuál es el significado funcional?

SUMMARY: Myodural bridges (MDB) are anatomical connections between the suboccipital muscles and the cervical dura mater which pass through both the atlanto-occipital and the atlanto-axial interspaces in mammals. In our previous studies, we found that the MDB exists in seven terrestrial mammal species, two marine mammal species, two reptilian species, and one bird species. A recent study suggested that given the "ubiquity" of myodural bridges in terrestrial vertebrates, the MDB may also exist in snakes. Specifically, we focused on the Gloydius shedaoensis, a species of Agkistrodon (pit viper snake) that is only found on Shedao Island, which is in the southeastern sea of Dalian City in China. Six head and neck cadaveric specimens of Gloydius shedaoensis were examined. Three specimens were used for anatomical dissection and the remaining three cadaveric specimens were utilized for histological analysis. The present study confirmed the existence of the MDB in the Gloydius shedaoensis. The snake's spinalis muscles originated from the posterior edge of the supraoccipital bones and the dorsal facet of the exocciput, and then extended on both sides of the spinous processes of the spine, merging with the semispinalis muscles. On the ventral aspect of this muscular complex, it gave off fibers of the MDB. These MDB fibers twisted around the posterior margin of the exocciput and then passed through the atlanto-occipital interspace, finally terminating on the dura mater. We observed that the MDB also existed in all of the snakes' intervertebral joints. These same histological findings were also observed in the Gloydius brevicaudus, which was used as a control specimen for the Gloydius shedaoensis. In snakes the spinal canal is longer than that observed in most other animals. Considering the unique locomotive style of snakes, our findings contribute to support the hypothesis that the MDB could modulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pulsations.

RESUMEN: Los puentes miodurales (MDB) son conexiones anatómicas entre los músculos suboccipitales y la duramadre cervical que pasan a través de los espacios intermedios atlanto-occipital y atlanto-axial en los mamíferos. En nuestros estudios anteriores, encontramos que el MDB existe en siete especies de mamíferos terrestres, dos especies de mamíferos marinos, dos especies de reptiles y una especie de ave. Un estudio reciente sugirió que dada la "ubicuidad" de los puentes miodurales en los vertebrados terrestres, el MDB también puede existir en las serpientes. Específicamente, nos enfocamos en Gloydius shedaoensis, una especie de Agkistrodon (serpiente víbora) que solo se encuentra en la isla Shedao, en el mar sureste de la ciudad de Dalian en China. Se examinaron seis especímenes cadavéricos de cabeza y cuello de Gloydius shedaoensis. Se utilizaron tres especímenes para la disección anatómica y los tres especímenes cadavéricos restantes se utilizaron para el análisis histológico. El presente estudio confirmó la existencia del MDB en Gloydius shedaoensis. Los músculos espinosos de la serpiente se originaron en el margen posterior de los huesos supraoccipital y la cara dorsal del exoccipucio, y luego se extendieron a ambos lados de los procesos espinosas de la columna vertebral, fusionándose con los músculos semiespinosos. En la cara ventral de este complejo muscular se desprendían fibras del MDB. Estas fibras MDB se ubican alrededor del margen posterior del exoccipucio y luego atraviesan el interespacio atlanto-occipital, terminando finalmente en la duramadre. Observamos que el MDB también existía en todas las articulaciones intervertebrales de las serpientes. Estos mismos hallazgos histológicos también se observaron en Gloydius brevicaudus, que se utilizó como muestra de control para Gloydius shedaoensis. En las serpientes, el canal espinal es más largo que el observado en la mayoría de los otros animales. Teniendo en cuenta el estilo único locomotor de las serpientes, nuestros hallazgos contribuyen a respaldar la hipótesis de que el MDB podría modular las pulsaciones del líquido cerebroespinal.

Epidemiological aspects of snakebites in the state of Amazonas, Brazil, from 2007 to 2017

This study comprises a retrospective analysis of snakebites in the State of Amazonas, Brazil, from 2007 to 2017. Data were collected from the Notifiable Diseases Information System (NDIS). 17,056 snakebites were recorded in Amazonas between 2007 and 2017. During the study period, the Rio Negro and Tefé micro-regions had the highest accumulated incidence, while small municipalities such as São Gabriel da Cachoeira, Uarini and Alvarães presenting a high incidence rate during the same period. Snakes in the genera Bothrops and Lachesis caused 69.5% and 20.3% snakebites. Snakebites occurred more frequently in the Amazonian winter, between January and April, and most of the snakebite victims (78.6%) were men. The most affected individuals were between 20 and 39 years of age (59.4%). The time elapsed between snakebites and medical assistance varied from one to six hours (51.4%). 7,705 of the snakebite cases, were classified as moderate, 7,328 as mild, and 1,299 as severe. Of the 104 deaths that occurred in the period, Bothrops genus caused the highest mortality (68.3%). The State of Amazonas recorded both high numbers of snakebites in the period 2007-2017 and the time elapsed between snakebite and medical assistance, which may affect the clinical status of patients.

Maintenance of venomous snakes in captivity for venom production at Butantan Institute from 1908 to the present: a scoping history

Maintenance of snakes at Butantan Institute started in the last century, intending to produce a different antivenom serum to reduce death caused by snakebites. Through a successful campaign coordinated by Vital Brazil, farmers sent venomous snakes to Butantan Institute by the railway lines with no cost. From 1908 to 1962, the snakes were kept in an outdoor serpentarium, where venom extraction was performed every 15 days. During this period, the snake average survival was 15 days. In 1963, the snakes were transferred to an adapted building, currently called Laboratory of Herpetology (LH), to be maintained in an intensive system. Although the periodicity of venom extraction remained the same, animal average survival increased to two months. With the severe serum crisis in 1983, the Ministry of Health financed remodeling for the three public antivenom producers, and with this support, the LH could be improved. Air conditioning and exhausting systems were installed in the rooms, besides the settlement of critical hygienic-sanitary managements to increase the welfare of snakes. In the early 1990s, snake survival was ten months. Over the years to the present day, several improvements have been made in the intensive serpentarium, as the establishment of two quarantines, feeding with thawed rodents, an interval of two months between venom extraction routines, and monitoring of snake health through laboratory tests. With these new protocols, average snake survival increased significantly, being eight years for the genus Bothrops, ten years for genus Crotalus and Lachesis, and four years for the genus Micrurus. Aiming the production of venoms of good quality, respect for good management practices is essential for the maintenance of snakes in captivity. New techniques and efficient management must always be sought to improve animal welfare, the quality of the venom produced, and the safety of those working directly with the venomous snakes.(AU)

Qualitative and quantitative ultrastructural analysis of the mitochondria from adrenal gland cortex under the action of viperidae family snake venoms / Análisis ultrastructural cualitativo y cuantitativo de la mitocondria de la glándula adrenal bajo la acción de los venenos de serpientes de la familia viperidae

SUMMARY: The Viperidae venoms are composed of a mixture of constituents with enzymatic and non-enzymatic actions, which act on ultrastructural components of cells and tissues. Here, the number of mitochondria, mitochondrial area and the number of mitochondrial cristae from adrenal glands cortex treated with snake venoms were tested after 3, 6 and 24 hours of venom injections. The mitochondria quantitative changes showed a statistically significant decrease, in the number of mitochondria past 3, 6 and 24 h. There was an increase in the mitochondrial area after 6 h, where Crotalus vegrandis venom did not present significant differences with Crotalus pifanorum or Bothrops venezuelensis venoms. After 24 h, there was an escalation of mitochondrial area in all tested venoms. The number of mitochondrial cristae after 3 h did not present important differences with the control treatment. After 6 h, the number of mitochondrial cristae initiated to decrease under the activities of the 3 venoms action, until 24 h of observation. In the qualitative observations it was possible to witness an intense damage of the mitochondria, with loss and swelling of membranes, disappearance of cristae and the appearance of myelin figures, which started at 3 h after the Crotalus and Bothrops venoms injections. These damages probably were due to cytotoxic effects of phospholipases, metalloproteases and/or other proteolytic activities present in Viperidae snake venoms, being more evident in Crotalus venoms. As far as we know, these results define a novel finding that suggest that Viperidae snake venoms are extremely toxic to mammalian mitochondria.

RESUMEN: Los venenos de Viperidae tienen acciones enzimáticas y no enzimáticas, que actúan sobre la estructura celular. Aquí se probaron, a las 3, 6 y 24 horas de la inyección del veneno, el número de mitocondrias, el área mitocondrial y el número de crestas mitocondriales de la corteza de las glándulas adrenales. Los cambios cuantitativos de las mitocondrias mostraron una disminución en el número de mitocondrias a las 3, 6 y 24 h. Hubo un aumento en el área mitocondrial a las 6 h, donde el veneno de la serpiente Crotalus vegrandis no presentó diferencias significativas con los venenos de Crotalus pifanorum o Bothrops venezuelensis. Después de 24 h, hubo un aumento del área mitocondrial en todos los venenos. El número de crestas mitocondriales a las 3 h no presentó alteraciones o diferencias importantes con el tratamiento de control. Después de 6 h, el número de crestas mitocondriales comenzó a disminuir bajo la acción de los 3 venenos, hasta las 24 h de observación. En las observaciones cualitativas se observó un daño intenso de las mitocondrias, con pérdida y edema de las membranas, desaparición de las cristae y aparición de figuras mielínicas, que comenzó a las 3 h después de las inyecciones de veneno de Crotalus y Bothrops. Estos daños se debieron factiblemente a los efectos citotóxicos de componentes proteolíticos de los venenos. Creemos que estos resultados definen un nuevo y original hallazgo, que sugiere que los venenos de serpiente Viperidae son extremadamente tóxicos para las mitocondrias de mamíferos.

Protein structure of the venom in nine species of snake: from bio-compounds to possible healing agents

Due to its various structures in bio-compounds, snake venom is the indisputable result of evolutionary stages of molecules with an increasingly complex structure, high specificity, and of great importance for medicine because of their potential. The present study proposed an underpinning examination of venom composition from nine species of venomous snakes using a useful and replicable methodology. The objective was the extension of the evaluation of protein fractions in the field up to 230 kDa to permit possible identification of some fractions that are insufficiently studied. The gel capillary electrophoresis method on the chip was performed using an Agilent 2100 bioassay with the 80 and 230-LabChip Protein kits. Interpretation of electrophoresis was performed using the Protein 2100 expert (Agilent) test software as follows: a) Protein 80 (peak size scale): 1.60, 3.5, 6.50, 15.00, 28.00, 46.00, 63.00, 95.00 kDa; b) Protein 230 (peak size scale): 4.50, 7.00, 15.00, 28.00, 46.00, 63.00, 95.00, 150.00, 240.00 kDa. The screening revealed the presence of compounds with a molecular weight greater than 80 kDa, in the case of Vipera aspis and Vipera xantina palestinae. For V. aspis, a 125 kDa molecular weight pro-coagulant protein was identified, known as being involved in the reduction of plasma clotting time without any direct activity in the fibrinogen coagulation process. The samples examined on the Protein 230-LabChip electrophoresis chip can be considered as a novelty with possible uses in medicine, requiring further approaches by advanced proteomics techniques to confirm the intimate structural features and biological properties of snake venoms.

Hepatozoon pyramidumi sp. n. (Apicomplexa: Adeleorina) from the blood of Echis pyramidum: morphology and SSU rDNA sequence / Hepatozoon pyramidumi sp. n. (Apicomplexa: Adeleorina) do sangue de Echis pyramidum: morfologia e sequência de SSU rDNA

Abstract Hepatozoon pyramidumi sp. n. is described from the blood of the Egyptian saw-scaled viper, Echis pyramidum, captured from Saudi Arabia. Five out of ten viper specimens examined (50%) were found infected with Hepatozoon pyramidumi sp. n. with parasitaemia level ranged from 20-30%. The infection was restricted only to the erythrocytes. Two morphologically different forms of intraerythrocytic stages were observed; small and mature gamonts. The small ganomt with average size of 10.7 × 3.5 μm. Mature gamont was sausage-shaped with recurved poles measuring 16.3 × 4.2 μm in average size. Infected erythrocytes were hypertrophied; their nuclei were deformed and sometimes displaced from their central position in the normal uninfected cell. Merogonic stages were observed in the lung endothelial cell and the liver parenchyma cells. Mature meront was 17.8 × 13.6 µm and contained banana-shaped merozoites with average size of ~15 × 2 µm. Phylogenetic analysis based on the SSU rDNA sequence clustered Hepatozoon pyramidumi sp. n with previously sequenced Hepatozoon spp., most of them infected reptilian hosts without geographic consideration. The morphological and molecular comparison with closely related species proved the taxonomic uniqueness and novelty of the present form.

Resumo Hepatozoon pyramidumi sp. n. é descrito a partir do sangue da víbora em escamas e quilhas serrilhadas, Echis pyramidum, capturada na Arábia Saudita. Cinco de dez espécimes de víbora examinadas (50%) foram encontradas infectadas com Hepatozoon pyramidumi sp. n. com nível de parasitemia de 20% a 30%. A infecção foi restrita apenas aos eritrócitos. Foram observadas duas formas morfologicamente diferentes de estágios intra-eritrocíticos: gamontes de tamanho pequeno e madura. As formas menores de gamontes apresentaram média de 10,7 × 3,5 μm. Os gamontes maduros apresentaram forma de salsicha, com pequenos polos recurvados, medindo 16,3 × 4,2 μm, em média. Os eritrócitos infectados estavam aumentados de tamanho; seus núcleos encontravam-se deformados e, algumas vezes, deslocados de sua posição central, quando comparados às células normais não-infectadas. Foram observados estágios merogônicos em células endoteliais pulmonares e nas células do parênquima hepático. Os merontes maduros apresentavam 17,8 × 13,6 µm e continham merozoítos em forma de banana com tamanho médio de ~ 15 × 2 µm. A análise filogenética baseada nas sequências SSU rDNA agrupou Hepatozoon pyramidumi sp. n com Hepatozoon spp. detectados em répteis de várias regiões geográficas. Por meio de análises morfológicas e moleculares com espécies intimamente relacionadas, demonstrou-se a singularidade dessa nova espécie de Hepatozoon.

Identification and characterization of the first endogenous phospholipase A2 inhibitor from a non-venomous tropical snake, Boa constrictor (Serpentes: Boidae)

Abstract Background: Endogenous phospholipase A2 inhibitors from snake blood (sbPLIs) have been isolated from several species around the world, with the primary function of self-protection against the action of toxic phospholipases A2. In American snakes, sbPLIs were solely described in pit vipers, in which the natural protection role is justified. In this study, we described a sbPLI in Boa constrictor (popularly known as jiboia), a non-venomous snake species from America. Methods: PLA2 inhibitory activity was tested in the blood plasma of B. constrictor using C. d. terrificus venom as the enzyme source. Antibodies developed against CNF, a sbγPLI from Crotalus durissus terrificus, were used to investigate the presence of homologues in the blood plasma of B. constrictor. A CNF-like molecule with a PLA2 inhibitory activity was purified by column chromatography. The encoding gene for the inhibitor was cloned from B. constrictor liver tissue. The DNA fragment was cloned, purified and sequenced. The deduced primary sequence of interest was aligned with known sbγPLIs from the literature. Results: The blood plasma of B. constrictor displayed PLA2 inhibitory activity. A CNF-like molecule (named BcNF) was identified and purified from the blood plasma of B. constrictor. Basic properties such as molecular mass, composing amino acids, and pI were comparable, but BcNF displayed reduced specific activity in PLA2 inhibition. BcNF showed highest identity scores (ISs) with sbγPLIs from pit vipers from Latin America (90-100%), followed by gamma inhibitors from Asian viperid (80-90%). ISs below 70% were obtained for BcNF and non-venomous species from Asia. Conclusion: A functional sbγPLI (BcNF) was described in the blood plasma of B. constrictor. BcNF displayed higher primary identity with sbγPLIs from Viperidae than to sbγPLIs from non-venomous species from Asia. The physiological role played by sbγPLIs in non-venomous snake species remains to be understood. Further investigation is needed.(AU)

Effect of Bitis gabonica and Dendroaspis angusticeps snake venoms on apoptosis-related genes in human thymic epithelial cells

Certain environmental toxins permanently damage the thymic epithelium, accelerate immune senescence and trigger secondary immune pathologies. However, the exact underlying cellular mechanisms and pathways of permanent immune intoxication remain unknown. The aim of the present study was to demonstrate gene expressional changes of apoptosis-related cellular pathways in human thymic epithelial cells following exposure to snake venom from Bitis gabonica and Dendroaspis angusticeps. Methods: Snake venoms were characterized by analytical methods including reversed phase high-performance liquid chromatography and sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, then applied on human thymic epithelial cells (1889c) for 24 h at 10 μg/mL (as used in previous TaqMan Array study). Gene expressional changes restricted to apoptosis were assayed by TaqMan Array (Human Apoptosis Plate). Results: The most prominent gene expressional changes were shown by CASP5 (≈ 2.5 million-fold, confirmed by dedicated quantitative polymerase chain reaction) and CARD9 (0.016-fold) for B. gabonica, and BIRC7 (6.46-fold) and CASP1 (0.30-fold) for D. angusticeps. Conclusion: The observed apoptotic environment suggests that pyroptosis may be the dominant pathway through which B. gabonica and D. angusticeps snake venoms trigger thymic epithelial apoptosis following envenomation.(AU)

Popular names for bushmaster (Lachesis muta) and lancehead (Bothrops atrox) snakes in the Alto Juruá region: repercussions for clinical-epidemiological diagnosis and surveillance

Abstract INTRODUCTION: The popular names "surucucu" and "jararaca" have been used in literature for Lachesis muta and Bothrops atrox snakes, respectively. We present the popular names reported by patients who suffered snakebites in the Alto Juruá region. METHODS: Fifty-seven (76%) patients saw the snakes that caused the envenomations and were asked about their popular names and sizes. RESULTS: The snakes Bothrops atrox, referred to as "jararaca," were recognized as being mainly juveniles (80.7%) and "surucucu" as mainly adults (81.8%). CONCLUSIONS: The name "surucucu" is used in the Alto Juruá region for the snake B. atrox, mainly for adult specimens.

Isolation and biochemical characterization of bradykinin-potentiating peptides from Bitis gabonica rhinoceros

Background: Venoms represent a still underexplored reservoir of bioactive components that might mitigate or cure diseases in conditions in which conventional therapy is ineffective. The bradykinin-potentiating peptides (BPPs) comprise a class of angiotensin-I converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors. The BPPs usually consist of oligopeptides with 5 to 13 residues with a high number of proline residues and the tripeptide Ile-Pro-Pro (IPP-tripeptide) in the C-terminus region and have a conserved N-terminal pyroglutamate residue. As a whole, the action of the BPPs on prey and snakebite victims results in the decrease of the blood pressure. The aim of this work was to isolate and characterize novel BPPs from the venom of Bitis gabonica rhinoceros. Methods: The crude venom of B. g. rhinoceros was fractionated by size exclusion chromatography and the peptide fraction (<7 kDa) was separated by reverse phase chromatography (RP-HPLC) and analyzed by ESI-IT-TOF-MS/MS. One new BPP was identified, synthetized and assayed for ACE inhibition and, in vivo, for edema potentiation. Results: Typical BPP signatures were identified in three RP-HPLC fractions. CID fragmentation presented the usual y-ion of the terminal P-P fragment as a predominant signal at m/z 213.1. De novo peptide sequencing identified one Bothrops-like BPP and one new BPP sequence. The new BPP was synthesized and showed poor inhibition over ACE, but displayed significant bradykinin-induced edema potentiation. Conclusions: So far, few BPPs are described in Viperinae, and based on the sequenced peptides, two non-canonical sequences were detected. The possible clinical role of this new peptides remains unclear.(AU)

Endogenous phospholipase A2 inhibitors in snakes: a brief overview

The blood plasma of numerous snake species naturally comprises endogenous phospholipase A2 inhibitors, which primarily neutralize toxic phospholipases A2 that may eventually reach their circulation. This inhibitor type is generally known as snake blood phospholipase A2 inhibitors (sbPLIs). Most, if not all sbPLIs are oligomeric glycosylated proteins, although the carbohydrate moiety may not be essential for PLA2 inhibition in every case. The presently known sbPLIs belong to one of three structural classes namely sbPLI, sbPLI or sbPLI depending on the presence of characteristic C-type lectin-like domains, leucine-rich repeats or three-finger motifs, respectively. Currently, the most numerous inhibitors described in the literature are sbPLIs and sbPLIs, whereas sbPLIs are rare. When the target PLA2 is a Lys49 homolog or an Asp49 myotoxin, the sbPLI is denominated a myotoxin inhibitor protein (MIP). In this brief overview, the most relevant data on sbPLIs will be presented. Representative examples of sbPLIs and sbPLIs from two Old World Gloydius brevicaudus and Malayopython reticulatus and two New World Bothrops alternatus and Crotalus durissus terrificus snake species will be emphasized.

Anticancer properties of phospholipase A2 fromDaboia siamensis venom on human skin melanoma cells

Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) is a major component of theDaboia siamensis venom, which is able to hydrolyse the membrane of various cells. For this reason, the activity of PLA2was investigated regarding its pharmaceutical properties. This study was conducted to explore the pharmacological properties of a PLA2from Daboia siamensis (dssPLA2) venom on human skin melanoma cell line (SK-MEL-28). Methods dssPLA2 was isolated by ion exchange and gel filtration columns. Various concentrations of dssPLA2were investigated for cytotoxic activity and inhibition of migration on SK-MEL-28 cells. Cell death analysis, mRNA expression levels of Notch I-III and BRAF V600E genes were also determined. Results dssPLA2 exhibited cytotoxicity on SK-MEL-28 for 24 and 72 h as compared with untreated cells. However, it had no toxic effects on CCD-1064sk cells under the same conditions. dssPLA2 (0.25 and 0.5 g/mL) induced 17.16 and 30.60 % of apoptosis, while activated 6.53 and 7.05 % of necrotic cells. dssPLA2 at 0.25, 0.5, 1 and 2 g/mL could inhibit migration on SK-MEL-28 cells for 24 h by 31.06, 41.66, 50 and 68.75 %, respectively. The action of dssPLA2 significantly reduced the levels of Notch I and BRAF V600E genes expression on SK-MEL-28 cells compared with untreated cells at 72 h. Conclusions This study indicates that dssPLA2 had potential effects of apoptosis, necrosis, cytotoxicity and inhibition of migration on SK-MEL-28 cells. dssPLA2 could possibly be a selective agent that targets cancer cells without affecting normal cells.

Snakebites notified to the poison control center of Morocco between 2009 and 2013

Background Snakebites cause considerable death and injury throughout the globe, particularly in tropical regions, and pose an important yet neglected threat to public health. In 2008, the Centre Anti Poison et de Parmacovigilance du Maroc (CAPM) started to set up a specific strategy for the control of snakebites that was formalized in 2012. The aim of the present study is to describe and update the epidemiological characteristics of snakebites notified to CAPM between 2009 and 2013. Methods This retrospective five-year study included all cases of snakebites notified to CAPM by mail or phone. Results During the study period, 873 snakebite cases were reported to CAPM, an average incidence of 2.65 cases per 100,000 inhabitants with 218 cases each year. The highest incidence was found in Tangier-Tetouan region with 357 cases (40.9 %) followed by Souss Massa Draa region with 128 cases (14.6 %). The average age of patients was 26.8 ± 17.2 years. The male to female sex ratio was 1.67:1 and 77 % of cases occurred in rural areas. The bites occurred mainly in spring (44 %) followed by summer (42 %). Snake species was identified in 54 cases (6.2 %): colubrids represented 31 % (n = 18) and vipers 67 % (n = 36), mainly Daboia mauritanica, Bitis arietans and Cerastes cerastes. In 311 cases (35.6 %), the patients showed viper syndrome. Thrombocytopenia was observed in 23.5 % of viper syndrome cases, whereas, compartment syndrome was observed in 7.6 % patients. FAV-Afrique® was administered in 41 patients (5 %). In patients treated with antivenom, 38 patients recovered and three died. Twenty-seven deaths were reported (3.9 %). Conclusion Despite specific efforts to better understand the epidemiology of snakebites in Morocco (incidence, severity, snake species involved), it remains underestimated. Therefore, further work is still necessary to ensure accessibility of appropriate antivenom against venomous species and to improve the management of envenomation in Morocco.(AU)

Experimental Lachesis muta rhombeata envenomation and effects of soursop (Annona muricata) as natural antivenom

Background In the Atlantic forest of the North and Northeast regions of Brazil, local population often uses the fruit juice and the aqueous extract of leaves of soursop (Annona muricata L.) to treat Lachesis muta rhombeata envenomation. Envenomation is a relevant health issue in these areas, especially due to its severity and because the production and distribution of antivenom is limited in these regions. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the relevance of the use of soursop leaf extract and its juice against envenomation by Lachesis muta rhombeata. Methods We evaluated the biochemical, hematological and hemostatic parameters, the blood pressure, the inflammation process and the lethality induced by Lachesis muta rhombeata snake venom. We also assessed the action of the aqueous extract of leaves (AmL) and juice (AmJ) from A. muricata on the animal organism injected with L. m. rhombeata venom (LmrV) in the laboratory environment. Results LmrV induced a decrease of total protein, albumin and glucose; and increase of creatine kinase, aspartate aminotransferase, and urea concentrations. It provoked hemoconcentration followed by reduction of hematocrit, an increase in prothrombin time and partial thromboplastin time and a decrease of the blood pressure. LmrV induced the release of interleukin-6, an increase in neutrophils and changes in the serum protein profile, characteristic of the acute inflammatory process. LD50 values were similar for the groups injected with LmrV and treated or untreated with AmJ and AmL. Both treatments play a role on the maintenance of blood glucose, urea and coagulation parameters and exert a protective action against the myotoxicity. However, they seem to worsen the hypotension caused by LmrV. Conclusion The treatments with AmJ and AmL present some beneficial actions, but they might intensify some effects of the venom. Therefore, additional studies on A. muricata are necessary to enable its use as natural antivenom for bushmaster snakebite.(AU)

A snakebite caused by a bushmaster (Lachesis muta): report of a confirmed case in State of Pernambuco, Brazil

ABSTRACTWe report a case of envenomation caused by a bushmaster ( Lachesis muta) in a male child in State of Pernambuco, Brazil. The victim showed discrete local manifestations, but presented altered blood coagulation 2 hours after the bite. Ten ampoules of bothropic-lachetic antivenom therapy were administered, and 48 hours later, the patient showed discrete edema, pain, and ecchymosis around the bite and normal blood coagulation. The patient was discharged 5 days after the envenomation. The prompt administration of specific treatment was important for the favorable outcomes observed.

Snake venom galactoside-binding lectins: a structural and functional overview

Snake venom galactoside-binding lectins (SVgalLs) comprise a class of toxins capable of recognizing and interacting with terminal galactoside residues of glycans. In the past 35 years, since the first report on the purification of thrombolectin from Bothrops atrox snake venom, several SVgalLs from Viperidae and Elapidae snake families have been described, as has progressive improvement in the investigation of structural/functional aspects of these lectins. Moreover, the advances of techniques applied in protein-carbohydrate recognition have provided important approaches in order to screen for possible biological targets. The present review describes the efforts over the past 35 years to elucidate SVgalLs, highlighting their structure and carbohydrate recognition function involved in envenomation pathophysiology and potential biomedical applications.(AU)

Hump-nosed viper bite: an important but under-recognized cause of systemic envenoming

Hump-nosed viper bites are common in the Indian subcontinent. In the past, hump-nosed vipers (Hypnale species) were considered moderately venomous snakes whose bites result mainly in local envenoming. However, a variety of severe local effects, hemostatic dysfunction, microangiopathic hemolysis, kidney injury and death have been reported following envenoming byHypnale species. We systematically reviewed the medical literature on the epidemiology, toxin profile, diagnosis, and clinical, laboratory and postmortem features of hump-nosed viper envenoming, and highlight the need for development of an effective antivenom.

Hump-nosed viper bite: an important but under-recognized cause of systemic envenoming

Hump-nosed viper bites are common in the Indian subcontinent. In the past, hump-nosed vipers (Hypnale species) were considered moderately venomous snakes whose bites result mainly in local envenoming. However, a variety of severe local effects, hemostatic dysfunction, microangiopathic hemolysis, kidney injury and death have been reported following envenoming byHypnale species. We systematically reviewed the medical literature on the epidemiology, toxin profile, diagnosis, and clinical, laboratory and postmortem features of hump-nosed viper envenoming, and highlight the need for development of an effective antivenom.

Correlation between annual activity patterns of venomous snakes and rural people in the Niger Delta, southern Nigeria

Background: Venomous snakes are among the most serious health hazards for rural people in tropical regions of the world. Herein we compare the monthly activity patterns of eight venomous snake species (Elapidae and Viperidae) with those of rural people in the Niger Delta area of southern Nigeria, in order to identify the periods of highest potential risk for persons, and the human group actually at greater risk of snakebite. Results: We documented that above-ground activity of all venomous snakes peaked in the wet season, and that high snake activity and high human activity were most highly correlated between April and August. In addition, we documented that women and teenagers were at relatively higher risk of encountering a venomous snake than adult males, despite they are less often in the field than men. Conclusions: Our results suggest that future programs devoted to mitigate the social and health effects of snakebites in the Niger Delta region should involve especially women and teenagers, with ad-hoc education projects if appropriate. We urge that international organizations working on social and health problems in the developing world, such as IRD, DFID, UNDP, should provide advice through specific programs targeted at especially these categories which have been highlighted in comparatively potential higher threat from snakebites than adult men.(AU)