Expression of Pinellia ternata leaf agglutinin under rolC promoter confers resistance against a phytophagous sap sucking aphid, Myzus persicae

BACKGROUND: Piercing/sucking insect pests in the order Hemiptera causes substantial crop losses by removing photoassimilates and transmitting viruses to their host plants. Cloning and heterologous expression of plantderived insect resistance genes is a promising approach to control aphids and other sap-sucking insect pests. While expression from the constitutive 35S promoter provides broad protection, the phloem-specific rolC promoter provides better defense against sap sucking insects. The selection of plant-derived insect resistance genes for expression in crop species will minimize bio-safety concerns. RESULTS: Pinellia ternata leaf agglutinin gene (pta), encodes an insecticidal lectin, was isolated and cloned under the 35S and rolC promoters in the pGA482 plant transformation vector for Agrobacterium-mediated tobacco transformation. Integration and expression of the transgene was validated by Southern blotting and qRT-PCR, respectively. Insect bioassays data of transgenic tobacco plants showed that expression of pta under rolC promoter caused 100% aphid mortality and reduced aphid fecundity up to 70% in transgenic tobacco line LRP9. These results highlight the better effectivity of pta under rolC promoter to control phloem feeders, aphids. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggested the potential of PTA against aphids and other sap sucking insect pests. Evaluation of gene in tobacco under two different promoters; 35S constitutive promoter and rolC phloemspecific promoter could be successfully use for other crop plants particularly in cotton. Development of transgenic cotton plants using plant-derived insecticidal, PTA, would be key step towards commercialization of environmentally safe insect-resistant crops.

Detección de patógenos asociados a la enfermedad punta morada en los cultivos de papa y tomate en Guatemala / Detection of pathogens associated to potato purple top disease in potato and tomato crops in Guatemala

La punta morada es una enfermedad que afecta la producción de algunas especies de solanáceas como la papa y el tomate, causando enrollamiento en las puntas de las hojas con una marcada coloración morada, decaimiento temprano de la planta y en la papa se observa tuberización aérea. Como patógenos asociados a la enfermedad se consideran al fitoplasma BLTVA y la bacteria Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum. Dada la similitud en la sin-tomatología foliar que generan ambos patógenos, es difícil precisar cuál de ellos está implicado en la enfermedad. En Guatemala, existen reportes de la sintomatología típica de punta morada en las principales zonas productoras de papa y tomate, desconociéndose el agente asociado. La investigación determinó cuál de los dos patógenos reportados está asociados a la enfermedad en 12 municipios productores de papa y/o tomate en el país. Se realizaron ampli-ficaciones de ADN con cebadores específicos para cada patógeno asociado a la enfermedad. Por la alta incidencia del fitoplasma BLTVA en las muestras de papa (73.9%), en comparación a C. Liberibacter solanacearum (26%), este es considerado como el patógeno asociado más importante en papa. En las muestras de tomate, la incidencia del fitoplasma BLTVA (29.8%) y C. Liberibacter solanacearum del (27.6%) fue similar. Además, sobresale el primer reporte de la detección del fitoplasma BLTVA afectando el cultivo de tomate en Guatemala. Se sugiere un monitoreo constante, mediante métodos moleculares, para un diagnóstico certero y establecer medidas de manejo de la enfermedad para evitar su diseminación hacia zonas aún no afectadas.

The potato purple top is a disease that affects the production of some solanaceous species such as potatoes and tomatoes, causing curl at the tips of the leaves with a marked purple coloration, early decay of the plant, and aerial tuberization is observed in the potato. BLTVA phytoplasma and Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum are considered as pathogens associated with the disease. Given the similarity in foliar symptoms generated by both pathogens, it is difficult to determine which one is involved in the disease. There are reports of the typical potato purple top symptoms in the main potato and tomato producing areas in Guatemala, being unknown the associated agent. The research determined which of the two reported pathogens is associated with the disease in 12 potatoes and/or tomato producing areas in the country. We performed DNA amplification with specific primers for each disease-associated pathogen. Due to the high incidence of BLTVA phytoplasma in potato samples (73.9%), com-pared to C. liberibacter solanacearum (26%), this is considered the most important associated pathogen in potatoes. In tomato samples, the incidence of BLTVA phytoplasma (29.8%) and C. liberibacter solanacearum (27.6%) was similar. Besides, the first report of the detection of the BLTVA phytoplasma affecting tomato cultivation in Gua-temala stands out. Using molecular methods, constant monitoring is suggested for an accurate diagnosis and to establish management measures for the disease to prevent its spread to areas not yet affected.

Detección del virus del amarillamiento de las nervaduras de la hoja de la papa en diferentes órganos de Solanum tuberosum grupo Phureja cv Criolla Colombia utilizando RT-PCR convencional y en tiempo real / Potato yellow vein virus detection in different organs of Solanum tuberosum Phureja group cv Criolla Colombia by conventional and real time qRT-PCR

La producción del cultivo de papa en Colombia se puede afectar por infección con diferentes patógenos virales, entre ellos, el Potato yellow vein virus (PYVV) que puede reducir la producción entre el 30 % y 50%. PYVV se ha diagnosticado molecularmente usando RT-PCR convencional en hojas sintomáticas y no sintomáticas. Sin embargo, no hay reportes sobre la detección y distribución viral en diferentes órganos infectados por PYVV en las plantas que expresan síntomas y sin síntomas. El objetivo de esta investigación, fue detectar a PYVV por RT-PCR convencional con cebadores específicos y por qRT-PCR (tiempo real) utilizando Sondas TaqMan® y analizar la distribución viral en plantas de S. tuberosum grupo Phureja cv. Criolla Colombia (papa criolla). Se logró la detección del virus en todos los órganos analizados (foliolo, peciolo, tallo aéreo y subterráneo, pedúnculo floral, pétalo y antera) mediante ambas técnicas, sin embargo, qRT-PCR fue 100 veces más sensible que la técnica convencional. Adicionalmente, se realizó la cuantificación absoluta del gen de la proteína mayor de la cápside de PYVV (CP). Los resultados indican que cuando la planta no expresa síntomas (NS), hay una distribución homogénea del virus, con un promedio del número de copias del gen CP de 4.09×107±2.35×107; mientras que en plantas sintomáticas el título viral es mayor (6.82×108±1.74×108) y la distribución heterogénea en los órganos, con mayor acumulación en órganos de la zona aérea. Este es el primer informe sobre la detección de PYVV en diferentes órganos de papa por medio de tiempo real, incluyendo las anteras y pedúnculo floral. La información debe ser de utilidad para el diagnóstico de PYVV y para adelantar estudios sobre la biología del virus y la relación con el huésped y el vector. La información suministrada debe ser valiosa para agricultores y fitomejoradores, además para programas de indexado de plantas contra PYVV y en la certificación de semilla.

Potato yield in Colombia could be affected by the infection with different viral pathogens, among which, Potato vein yellow virus (PYVV) could reduce potato production by 30% to 50%. PYVV has been diagnosed molecularly in symptomatic and symptomless leaves samples by conventional RT-PCR. However, the PYVV detection and distribution in different organs of symptomatic and symptomless plants have not been reported until now. The aim of this research was to detect and analyze PYVV distribution in different organs of infected S. tuberosum group Phureja cv. Criolla Colombia (papa criolla) plants using conventional and real time qRT-PCR usindTaqMan® probes. It was achieved to detect the virus in all analyzed organs (leaflets, petiole, peduncle, anther, petals, aerial and underground stem) by both techniques; however, qRT-PCR was 100 times more sensitive than the conventional technique. Additionally, the absolute quantification of coat major protein gene (CP) was determined. The results shown that in non symptomatic plants (NS), PYVV was distributed homogenously with an average CP gene copy number of 4.09 × 107 ± 2.35 × 107, while in symptomatic moderate and severe plants (M) or (S) the viral load was greater (6.82×108±1.74×108) with an heterogeneous distribution regarding the organ and with greater accumulation in the aerial organs. The results presented in this study will be important for PYVV detection and further studies on the virus biology, host and vector relations. The information should be useful to farmers, breeders, indexing and seed certification programs.

Comparative morpho-anatomical studies of the lesions caused by citrus leprosis virus on sweet orange

The leprosis disease shows a viral etiology and the citrus leprosis virus is considered its etiologic agent. The disease may show two types of cytopatologic symptom caused by two virus: nuclear (CiLV-N) and cytoplasmic (CiLV-C) types. The aim of this study was to compare the morpho-anatomical differences in the lesions caused by leprosis virus-cytoplasmic and nuclear types in Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck 'Pêra'. Leaf and fruit lesions were collected in Piracicaba/São Paulo (cytoplasmic type) and Monte Alegre do Sul/São Paulo and Amparo/São Paulo (nuclear type). The lesions were photographed and then fixed in Karnovsky solution, dehydrated in a graded ethylic series, embedded in hydroxy-ethyl methacrylate resin (Leica Historesin), sectioned (5 μm thick), stained and mounted in synthetic resin. The digital images were acquired in a microscope with digital video camera. Leaf and fruit lesions caused by the two viruses were morphologically distinct. Only the lesion caused by CiLV-N virus presented three well-defined regions. In both lesions there was the accumulation of lipidic substances in necrotic areas that were surrounded by cells with amorphous or droplets protein. Only leaf and fruit lesions caused by CiLV-N virus exhibited traumatic gum ducts in the vascular bundles.

A doença leprose dos citros tem etiologia viral sendo o citrus leprosis virus seu agente etiológico. Demonstrou-se que há dois vírus distintos que causam sintomas de leprose em ci-tros: citoplasmático (CiLV-C) e o nuclear (CiLV-N). O objetivo desse estudo foi comparar as diferenças morfo-anatômicas nas lesões causadas por CiLV-C e por CiLV-N em laranjeira doce (Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck) 'Pêra'. As lesões foliares e dos frutos foram coletadas em Piracicaba/SP (tipo citoplas-mático) e em Monte Alegre do Sul/SP e Amparo/SP (tipo nuclear). As lesões foram fotografadas e em seguida fixadas em solução Karnovsky, desidratadas em série etílica, incluídas em historesina e secionadas em micrótomo rotativo. As lâminas foram coradas, analisadas e fotografadas. As lesões foliares e do fruto causadas pelos dois vírus eram morfologicamente distintas. Somente a lesão causada por CiLV-N apresentou três regiões bem definidas. Em ambas as lesões ocorreu acúmulo de substâncias lipídicas nas áreas necrosadas que se achavam envoltas por células com conteúdo protéico amorfo ou em gotas. Somente as lesões da folha e do fruto causadas pelo CiLV-N exibiram ductos traumáticos gomosos nos feixes vasculares.

Desarrollo de una herramienta de diagnóstico para el virus de la hoja blanca del arroz en Venezuela / Development of a diagnostic tool for the rice

Se describe el desarrollo de un ensayo de diagnóstico del tipo DAS-ELISA para la detección del virus de la hoja blanca del arroz (RHBV) en Venezuela. El virus fue aislado y caracterizado parcialmente a partir de material vegetal infectado proveniente de los estados Portuguesa y Guárico. Se obtuvieron inmunoglobulinas (IgGs) altamente específicas que reaccionaron contra el virus en diluciones de 1:1000 en los inmunoensayos. De acuerdo con los análisis serológicos, la incidencia del virus en las principales regiones productoras de arroz durante los años muestreados fue muy baja (11 por ciento), posiblemente debido a la siembra de líneas de arroz resistentes al virus en los estados encuestados y/o a la baja incidencia del insecto vector (Sogatodes orizicola) durante las estaciones de colecta. El desarrollo de este método de diagnóstico permitirá en el futuro la certificación fitosanitaria de material vegetal libre de RHBV.

Incidencia y distribución altitudinal de 13 virus en cultivos de solanum tuberosum (solanaceae) en Costa Rica / Incidence and altitudinal distribution of 13 virus cultures in Solanum tuberosum (Solanaceae) from Costa Rica

A survey was conducted in 30 fields located at three different altitudes in Cartago, Costa Rica's main potato producing area. Twenty plants were sampled per farm, for a total of 600 samples with 200 samples per altitude. ELISA was used with commercial reagents to independently test for PVX, PVY, PVM, PVA, PVS, PLRV, PMTV, PAMV, PVV, PVT, APLV, APMoV and TRSV. The presence of the following viruses was determined: PVX (77 %), PAMV (62 %), PLRV (42 %), TRSV (42 %), PVT (39 %), PVV (37 %), PMTV (31%), PVY (30 %), PVS (19 %), PVM (13 %), PVA (8 %), and APMoV (8%). APLV was not detected in any sample. This is the first report in Costa Rica of the presence of the viruses PMTV, PAMV, PVV, PVT and APMoV. A high viral incidence in the tuber seed production area as well as a high rate of mixed infections is reported.

En Cartago, la zona productora de papa más importante de Costa Rica, se realizó un muestreo en 30 fincas ubicadas a tres altitudes. Se recolectaron 20 plantas por finca y 200 muestras por altitud. Todas las muestras se analizaron independientemente mediante ELISA, para PVX, PVY, PVM, PVA, PVS, PLRV, PMTV, PAMV, PVV, PVT, APLV, APMoV y TRSV, utilizando reactivos comerciales. Se identificó la presencia de PVX (77 %), PAMV (62 %), PLRV (42 %), TRSV (42 %), PVT (39 %), PVV (37 %), PMTV (31 %), PVY (30 %), PVS (19 %), PVM (13 %), PVA (8 %), y APMoV (8 %). No se detectó APLV en ninguna de las muestras analizadas. Se informan por primera vez la presencia en Costa Rica de los virus PMTV, PAMV, PVV, PVT y APMoV. Se informa la alta incidencia viral en la zona dedicada a la producción de tubérculos como semilla y la alta tasa de infecciones mixtas.

Transmissão do Passion fruit woodiness Virus por Aphis gossypii ( Glover ) ( Hemiptera: Aphididae ) e colonização de maracujazeiro pelo vetor / Transmission of Passion fruit woodiness virus by Aphis gossypii ( Glover ) ( Hemiptera: Aphididae ) and colonization of Passion flower by the vector

Avaliou-se a transmissão de Passion fruit woodiness virus (PWV) por Aphis gossypii (Glover). Em dois experimentos independentes, o afídeo transmitiu o PWV para maracujazeiros com taxas de 75 por cento e 100 por cento, ao se depositarem oito e doze afídeos virulíferos por planta, respectivamente. No final dos testes, observaram-se, em algumas plantas de maracujá, formas ápteras e ninfas de A. gossypii, sugerindo a colonização dessas plantas pelo afídeo. Esse parece ser o primeiro relato da colonização de Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa (Deneger) por uma espécie de afídeo.

Exsudato glandular de genótipos de tomateiro e desenvolvimento de Bemisia tabaci (Genn) (Sternorryncha: Aleyrodidae) biótipo B / Glandular exudate of tomato genotypes and development of Bemisia tabaci (Genn) (Sternorryncha: Aleyrodidae) biotype B

Bemisia tabaci (Genn.) é uma das principais pragas do tomateiro no Brasil, provocando severas perdas devido à sucção de seiva, indução do amadurecimento irregular dos frutos e transmissão de viroses. O objetivo deste trabalho foi determinar o efeito de tricomas glandulares no desenvolvimento de B. tabaci biótipo B em oito genótipos de tomateiro, em casa de vegetação. Utilizou-se o delineamento de blocos ao acaso, em arranjo fatorial (genótipo x exsudato), com três repetições, sendo os genótipos avaliados na condição com e sem exsudato. Adultos da mosca-branca foram transferidos para uma gaiola de voil, onde permaneceram durante 24h. As variáveis avaliadas foram número de ovos e viabilidade, período de incubação, número de ninfas, duração e sobrevivência da fase ninfal. Efetuou-se a contagem de tricomas e a determinação do pH e teor de acilglicose para todos os genótipos. Na presença de exsudato, LA716 proporcionou redução na oviposição do inseto, o que sugere efeito antixenótico. Resistência antixenótica em LA1739 e PI134417 não foi associada ao exsudato glandular. O efeito do exsudato na oviposição do inseto foi explicado pelo teor de acilglicose. O pH apresentou papel secundário na oviposição da mosca-branca. A densidade de tricomas favoreceu o desenvolvimento do inseto. LA1584 destacou-se pela redução na sobrevivência do inseto e prolongamento do ciclo, além de propiciar oviposição intermediária, podendo ser adequado para incorporação em programas de melhoramento. Entretanto, há necessidade de estudos adicionais para determinar o potencial de uso desse genótipo ou de seus híbridos no manejo integrado de pragas.

Bemisia tabaci (Genn.) is one of the most important tomato pests in Brazil and causes severe losses due to the sap suction, the induction of the irregular ripening of the fruit and virus transmission. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of exudates released by the glandular trichomes on the development of B. tabaci biotype B on eight tomato genotypes, under greenhouse conditions. The experiment was arranged as a factorial scheme (genotype x exudate) in a randomized block design, with three replications, being the genotypes evaluated in two conditions (with and without exudate). Whitefly adults were transferred to a voile cage for 24h. The variables evaluated were number of eggs and viability, incubation period, number of nymphs, duration and viability of the nymphal stage. Trichome counts and determination of pH and acylglucose content were made for all the genotypes. Intact leaflets of LA716 were less accepted for oviposition than leaflets without exudate, which suggests an antixenotic effect. Antixenotic resistance in LA1739 and PI134417 was not associated to the glandular exudate. The effect of exudates on the insect oviposition was explained by the acylglucose content. The pH showed secondary role on the whitefly oviposition. Trichomes density improved the insect development. LA1584 reduced the insect survival and increased its cycle, besides promoting an intermediate oviposition. For this reason, it can be useful in breeding programs. However, further studies are needed to determine the potential of this genotype and hybrids for future utilization in integrated pest management.

Un método de transformación genética de maíz para conferirle resistencia ulterior a enfermedades virales / A method for genetic transformation of maize for resistance to viral diseases

A system for the genetic transformation of maize was developed for two Costa Rican varieties: CR-7 and Diamantes 8843, that can allow the subsequent transfer of viral-derived genes in order to confer resistance to the disease caused by maize rayado fino virus (MRFV). The method is based on particle bombardment of organogenic calli derived from shoot tips. On the other hand, the molecular construction pRFcp-bar, containing the coat protein gene of MRFV and the marker gene bar, was elaborated. For the visual selection of the transformed material was used also the plasmid pDM803 that contains the reporter gene uidA (GUS). The results indicate that devices evaluated: the PIG ("Particle Inflow Gun") and the Bio-Rad are both enough efficient to transfer foreign genes to the genome of the maize.

Expression of the rice hoja blanca virus (RHBV) non-structural protein 3 (NS3) in Escherichia coli and its in situ localization in RHBV-infected rice tissues

The non-structural NS3 protein gene from the rice hoja blanca virus (RHBV) was fused to the glutathione-S-transferase carboxilic end and expressed in Escherichia coli strain JM83. Large quantities of fusion protein were produced in insoluble form. The fusion protein was fractionated in SDS-PAGE and purified by electroelution, polyclonal antibodies were raised in rabbit and the antiserum was absorbed with bacterial crude extract. A band of similar size as that of NS3 protein was observed in Western blots using extracts from RHBV-infected rice plants. Immunoelectron microscopy with colloidal gold-labeled antibodies against NS3 protein and the viral nucleocapsid protein revealed in situ accumulation of NS3 protein in the cytoplasm but not in the viral inclusion bodies, vacuoles or chloroplasts of RHBV-infected plants, following the same pattern of distribution as the RHBV nucleocapsid protein.

The potential of virus-induced gene silencing for speeding up functional characterization of plant genes

Virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) has been shown to be of great potential in plant reverse genetics. Advantages of VIGS over other approaches, such as T-DNA or transposon tagging, include the circumvention of plant transformation, methodological simplicity and robustness, and speedy results. These features make VIGS an attractive alternative instrument in functional genomics, even in a high throughput fashion. The system is already well established in Nicotiana benthamiana; however, efforts are being made to improve VIGS in other species, including monocots. Current research is focussed on unravelling the mechanisms of post-transcriptional gene silencing and VIGS, as well as on finding novel viral vectors in order to broaden the host species spectrum. We examined how VIGS has been used to assess gene functions in plants, including molecular mechanisms involved in the process, available methodological elements, such as vectors and inoculation procedures, and we looked for examples in which the system has been applied successfully to characterize gene function in plants.

Botrytis porri: causante de pudrición en el cuello del ajo en Mérida Venezuela / Botrytis porri: agent of neck rot on garlic plants in Mérida Venezuela

Se identificó a Botrytis porri como la causa de pudrición en el cuello de plantas de ajo (Allium sativum) cultivadas en el sector Mesa de Caballo, Municipio Miranda del estado Mérida, Venezuela. La identidad del patógeno se estableció en función de la morfología y las dimensiones de conidios y esclerocios producidos in vitro e in situ. En substrato preparado con harina de avena y agua, el hongo formó grandes esclerocios negros de aspecto cerebriforme que lo caracterizan. Todas las plántulas inoculadas murieron en el transcurso de una semana, mientras que las testigos no presentaron síntomas de infección. B. porri fue el único microorganismo aislado de las plántulas inoculadas. Este es el primer reporte de B. porri infectando ajo cultivado en Venezuela.

Stimulation of jasmonic acid production in Zea mays L. infected by the maize rough dwarf virus-Río Cuarto: reversion of symptoms by salicylic acid

In the present paper we study the possible biological relevance of endogenous jasmonic acid (JA) and exogenous salicylic acid (SA) in a plant-microbial system maize-virus. The virus disease "Mal de Río Cuarto" is caused by the maize rough dwarf virus-Río Cuarto. The characteristic symptoms are the appearance of galls or enations in leaves, shortening of the stem internodes, poor radical system and general stunting. Changes in JA and protein pattern in maize control and infected plants of a virus-tolerant cultivar were investigated. Healthy and infected-leaf discs were collected for JA measurement at different post-infection times (20, 40, 60 and 68 days). JA was also measured in roots on day 60 after infection. For SDS-PAGE protein analysis, leaf discs were also harvested on day 60 after infection. Infected leaves showed higher levels of JA than healthy leaves, and the rise in endogenous JA coincided with the enation formation. The soluble protein amount did not show differences between infected and healthy leaves; moreover, no difference in the expression of soluble protein was revealed by SDS-PAGE. Our results show that the octadecanoid pathway was stimulated in leaves and roots of the tolerant maize cultivar when infected by this virus. This finding, together with fewer plants with the disease symptoms, suggest that higher foliar and roots JA content may be related to disease tolerance. SA exogenous treatment caused the reversion of the dwarfism symptom.

Plantas peligrosas por producir sustancias toxicas / Dangerous plants to produce toxic substances

En esta sección de la guía se pretende proporcionar información sobre las plantas en Bolivia, que producen sustancias toxicas para las personas. Es muy importante hacer notar que una sustancia venenosa pueda llegar a producir una reaccion diferente en cada persona.

Factors favoring houseplant container infestation with Aedes aegypti larve in Marilia, Sao Paulo, Brazil / Factores que favorecen la infestación de recipientes con plantas domésticas por larvas de Aedes aegypti en Marília, São Paulo, Brasil

Desde 1985, después de la reinfestación de mosquitos Aedes aegypti (L.) en el Estado de São Paulo, se encontró que ­a pesar de la diseminación de mensajes educativos destinados a su control­ las macetas y floreros son un hábitat importante de las larvas. Los objetivos de este estudio fueron identificar las macetas y floreros como hábitats de larvas de mosquitos en relación con su número y grado de infestación, los tipos de plantas involucradas y la localización específica de las larvas; investigar los nombres locales de las plantas domésticas y examinar los factores que afectan al cumplimiento de las medidas de control. Los resultados mostraron un promedio de más de cuatro posibles hábitats de larvas relacionados con plantas por cada sitio, de los cuales solo 0,4% tenían el vector. Los recipientes para plantas representaron 31% de todos los receptáculos con larvas de A. aegypti. A pesar de que de una muestra de 126 personas entrevistadas enumeraron 105 nombres de plantas domésticas, 49% de las plantas asociadas con larvas fueron solo de dos tipos: helechos y la planta ornamental Dieffenbachia avoena. La evidente falta de voluntad de la población para aceptar las medidas de control contra A. aegypti en lo que respecta a plantas domésticas parece deberse a la poca frecuencia relativa de A. aegypti en los recipientes domésticos, la falta de confianza en los programas de control como fuente idónea de información sobre plantas y la opinión de que las medidas de control recomendadas son dañinas para las plantas. Actualmente se está planeando una intervención para el control del dengue en la que se usará material educativo que trata específicamente sobre las plantas cuyos recipientes albergan con mayor frecuencia las larvas de A. aegypti. También se hará uso de fuentes de información botánica con mayor credibilidad en materia de plantas. Además, se formulará un plan diferente con un enfoque más atractivo desde el punto de vista de la salud de las plantas para incrementar su posibilidad de aceptación.

Desde 1985, después de la reinfestación de mosquitos Aedes aegypti (L.) en el Estado de São Paulo, se encontró que ­a pesar de la diseminación de mensajes educativos destinados a su control­ las macetas y floreros son un hábitat importante de las larvas. Los objetivos de este estudio fueron identificar las macetas y floreros como hábitats de larvas de mosquitos en relación con su número y grado de infestación, los tipos de plantas involucradas y la localización específica de las larvas; investigar los nombres locales de las plantas domésticas y examinar los factores que afectan al cumplimiento de las medidas de control. Los resultados mostraron un promedio de más de cuatro posibles hábitats de larvas relacionados con plantas por cada sitio, de los cuales solo 0,4% tenían el vector. Los recipientes para plantas representaron 31% de todos los receptáculos con larvas de A. aegypti. A pesar de que de una muestra de 126 personas entrevistadas enumeraron 105 nombres de plantas domésticas, 49% de las plantas asociadas con larvas fueron solo de dos tipos: helechos y la planta ornamental Dieffenbachia avoena. La evidente falta de voluntad de la población para aceptar las medidas de control contra A. aegypti en lo que respecta a plantas domésticas parece deberse a la poca frecuencia relativa de A. aegypti en los recipientes domésticos, la falta de confianza en los programas de control como fuente idónea de información sobre plantas y la opinión de que las medidas de control recomendadas son dañinas para las plantas. Actualmente se está planeando una intervención para el control del dengue en la que se usará material educativo que trata específicamente sobre las plantas cuyos recipientes albergan con mayor frecuencia las larvas de A. aegypti. También se hará uso de fuentes de información botánica con mayor credibilidad en materia de plantas. Además, se formulará un plan diferente con un enfoque más atractivo desde el punto de vista de la salud de las plantas para incrementar su posibilidad de aceptación.

Early events in virus-plant interactions

1. Plant viruses can only enter their host through a wounded plant cell. Once in the cytoplasm, the virion must be disassembled, and for certain viruses with a "+" RNA genome, cotranslational disassembly of virus particles has been described. 2. Subsequent to viral protein synthesis which requires the host translational machinery, the "+" RNA genome is replicated in the cytoplasm. Viral genome amplification requires at least one viral-coded non-structural protein in conjunction with one or more host factors. 3. Early events in virus infection can be studied in systems that hinder these events. This is the case of natural hosts that are resitant to viruses: mutant viruses which overcome such resistance have been described. It is also the case of genetically engineered plants that are protected from virus infection. Both types of systems should help in determining the mode of interaction involved, and possibly also the host factor(s) involved in the various steps of virus infection