Prevalence of viral hepatitis (A, B, C, and E) infection and co-infection among hospitalized children in Cairo, Egypt.

Viral hepatitis is considered a public health issue facing the entire world. The World Health Organization encouraged all countries to work together to eliminate this fatal infection and achieve the 2030 agenda. The present study aimed to investigate the silent infection of viral hepatitis (A, B, C, and E) among hospitalized children in Cairo, Egypt, to control and avoid chronic infection early on. This cross-sectional study included 184 randomly selected hospitalized children from three different hospitals in Cairo, Egypt. They were children aged between a few months to 15 years to determine viral hepatitis infection and co-infection. Antibodies to hepatitis A virus (HAV IgM), hepatitis E virus (HEV IgM), hepatitis C virus (HCV Ab), and hepatitis B virus surface antigen (HBs Ag) were performed by ELISA. If the ELISA results were positive, the viral load was quantified by real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Other laboratory investigations included alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, albumin, and complete blood count. Only five children (2.71%) had HCV Ab positive with no other viral (A, B, and E) co-infections as determined by ELISA. Also, the RT-PCR detected HCV RNA in these ELISA positive children. The remaining children (179/184) were all negative for all hepatitis viruses' markers (HAV IgM, HEV IgM, HBs Ag, and HCV Ab). In conclusion, this study documented that, Cairo hospitals serving Egyptian children had a low prevalence of viral hepatitis (A, B, C, and E). More research with larger sample sizes from hospitals across Egypt is needed.

A state-of-the-art review on the NRF2 in Hepatitis virus-associated liver cancer.

According to a paper released and submitted to WHO by IARC scientists, there would be 905,700 new cases of liver cancer diagnosed globally in 2020, with 830,200 deaths expected as a direct result. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) hepatitis C virus (HCV), and hepatitis D virus (HDV) all play critical roles in the pathogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), despite the rising prevalence of HCC due to non-infectious causes. Liver cirrhosis and HCC are devastating consequences of HBV and HCV infections, which are widespread worldwide. Associated with a high mortality rate, these infections cause about 1.3 million deaths annually and are the primary cause of HCC globally. In addition to causing insertional mutations due to viral gene integration, epigenetic alterations and inducing chronic immunological dysfunction are all methods by which these viruses turn hepatocytes into cancerous ones. While expanding our knowledge of the illness, identifying these pathways also give possibilities for novel diagnostic and treatment methods. Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2) activation is gaining popularity as a treatment option for oxidative stress (OS), inflammation, and metabolic abnormalities. Numerous studies have shown that elevated Nrf2 expression is linked to HCC, providing more evidence that Nrf2 is a critical factor in HCC. This aberrant Nrf2 signaling drives cell proliferation, initiates angiogenesis and invasion, and imparts drug resistance. As a result, this master regulator may be a promising treatment target for HCC. In addition, the activation of Nrf2 is a common viral effect that contributes to the pathogenesis, development, and chronicity of virus infection. However, certain viruses suppress Nrf2 activity, which is helpful to the virus in maintaining cellular homeostasis. In this paper, we discussed the influence of Nrf2 deregulation on the viral life cycle and the pathogenesis associated with HBV and HCV. We summed up the mechanisms for the modulation of Nrf2 that are deregulated by these viruses. Moreover, we describe the molecular mechanism by which Nrf2 is modulated in liver cancer, liver cancer stem cells (LCSCs), and liver cancer caused by HBV and HCV. Video Abstract.

Pay-it-forward incentives for hepatitis virus testing in men who have sex with men: a cluster randomized trial.

Pay-it-forward incentives involve having a person receive a free test with community-generated messages and then asking if those who received a free test would like to donate money to support others to receive free testing. Here we undertook a two-arm cluster-randomized trial to evaluate pay-it-forward incentives with active community participation to promote hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) testing among men who have sex with men in China. Men randomized to the pay-it-forward arm received free HBV and HCV testing and were offered a chance to pay-it-forward by donating money to support the testing of another anonymous person. Each participant paid for their HCV and HBV test at 7.7 USD per test in the standard-of-care arm. The primary outcome was the proportion of men who tested for HBV and HCV. Between 28 March and 6 November 2021, 32 groups (10 men per group) of men were randomized to the pay-it-forward (n = 160, 16 clusters) and standard-of-care (n = 162, 16 clusters) arms, respectively. HBV and HCV rapid testing were higher in the pay-it-forward arm (59.4%) than in the standard-of-care arm (25.3%) (proportion difference 35.2%, 95% confidence interval 24.1-46.3%). No adverse events were reported. The community-led pay-it-forward incentives improved HBV and HCV testing among men who have sex with men. Clinical Trial registration: ChiCTR 2100046140.

Enolase represents a metabolic checkpoint controlling the differential exhaustion programmes of hepatitis virus-specific CD8+ T cells.

OBJECTIVE: Exhausted T cells with limited effector function are enriched in chronic hepatitis B and C virus (HBV and HCV) infection. Metabolic regulation contributes to exhaustion, but it remains unclear how metabolism relates to different exhaustion states, is impacted by antiviral therapy, and if metabolic checkpoints regulate dysfunction. DESIGN: Metabolic state, exhaustion and transcriptome of virus-specific CD8+ T cells from chronic HBV-infected (n=31) and HCV-infected patients (n=52) were determined ex vivo and during direct-acting antiviral (DAA) therapy. Metabolic flux and metabolic checkpoints were tested in vitro. Intrahepatic virus-specific CD8+ T cells were analysed by scRNA-Seq in a HBV-replicating murine in vivo model of acute and chronic infection. RESULTS: HBV-specific (core18-27, polymerase455-463) and HCV-specific (NS31073-1081, NS31406-1415, NS5B2594-2602) CD8+ T cell responses exhibit heterogeneous metabolic profiles connected to their exhaustion states. The metabolic state was connected to the exhaustion profile rather than the aetiology of infection. Mitochondrial impairment despite intact glucose uptake was prominent in severely exhausted T cells linked to elevated liver inflammation in chronic HCV infection and in HBV polymerase455-463 -specific CD8+ T cell responses. In contrast, relative metabolic fitness was observed in HBeAg-negative HBV infection in HBV core18-27-specific responses. DAA therapy partially improved mitochondrial programmes in severely exhausted HCV-specific T cells and enriched metabolically fit precursors. We identified enolase as a metabolic checkpoint in exhausted T cells. Metabolic bypassing improved glycolysis and T cell effector function. Similarly, enolase deficiency was observed in intrahepatic HBV-specific CD8+ T cells in a murine model of chronic infection. CONCLUSION: Metabolism of HBV-specific and HCV-specific T cells is strongly connected to their exhaustion severity. Our results highlight enolase as metabolic regulator of severely exhausted T cells. They connect differential bioenergetic fitness with distinct exhaustion subtypes and varying liver disease, with implications for therapeutic strategies.

Sero-prevalence of hepatitis viral infections among sanitary workers across worldwide: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Sanitation or sanitary workers are exposed to hepatitis virus infections because of filthy and dangerous working conditions. The current global systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to estimate the pooled sero-prevalence of occupationally associated hepatitis virus infection among them. METHODS: Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews (PRISMA), and Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome and study design (PICOS) were used for flow diagram, and review questions, respectively. Four databases other methods were used published articles from 2000 to 2022. Boolean logic (AND, OR), MeSH, and keywords were used: (Occupation *OR Job *OR Work) AND (Hepatitis A *OR Hepatitis B virus *OR Hepatitis C virus *OR Hepatitis E virus) AND (Solid waste collectors [SWCs] *OR Street sweepers [SS] *OR Sewage workers [STWs] *OR health care facilities cleaners [HCFCs)) AND (Countries). Stata MP/17 software was used for pooled prevalence analysis, meta-regression analysis (Hedges) at a 95% confidence interval (CI:95%). RESULTS: A total of 182 studies were identified studies, a total of 28 studies were included from twelve countries. Of these, from developed (n = 7) and developing countries (n = 5). From total a of 9049 sanitary workers, 5951(66%), 2280 (25%) and 818 (9%) were STWs, SWCs and SS, respectively. Globally, the pooled sero-prevalence of occupational-related hepatitis viral infections among sanitary workers was 38.06% (95% CI: 30-0.46.12). Of this, it was 42.96% (95% CI: 32.63-53.29) and 29.81% (95% CI: 17.59-42.02) for high-income and low-income countries, respectively. Meanwhile, by sub-analysis, the highest pooled sero-prevalence of hepatitis viral infections by categories, type and year were 47.66% (95%CI: 37.42-57.90), 48.45% (95% CI: 37.95-58.96), and 48.30% (95% CI: 36.13-60.47) for SWTs, HAV, and 2000 to 2010 year, respectively. CONCLUSION: The consistency of the evidence suggests that sanitation workers, particularly sewage workers, are susceptible to occupationally acquired hepatitis regardless of their working conditions, necessitating significant changes to occupational health and safety regulations from governmental policies and other initiatives to reduce risks among sanitary workers.

Periodic Characteristics of Hepatitis Virus Infections From 2013 to 2020 and Their Association With Meteorological Factors in Guangdong, China: Surveillance Study.

BACKGROUND: In the past few decades, liver disease has gradually become one of the major causes of death and illness worldwide. Hepatitis is one of the most common liver diseases in China. There have been intermittent and epidemic outbreaks of hepatitis worldwide, with a tendency toward cyclical recurrences. This periodicity poses challenges to epidemic prevention and control. OBJECTIVE: In this study, we aimed to investigate the relationship between the periodic characteristics of the hepatitis epidemic and local meteorological elements in Guangdong, China, which is a representative province with the largest population and gross domestic product in China. METHODS: Time series data sets from January 2013 to December 2020 for 4 notifiable infectious diseases caused by hepatitis viruses (ie, hepatitis A, B, C, and E viruses) and monthly data of meteorological elements (ie, temperature, precipitation, and humidity) were used in this study. Power spectrum analysis was conducted on time series data, and correlation and regression analyses were performed to assess the relationship between the epidemics and meteorological elements. RESULTS: The 4 hepatitis epidemics showed clear periodic phenomena in the 8-year data set in connection with meteorological elements. Based on the correlation analysis, temperature demonstrated the strongest correlation with hepatitis A, B, and C epidemics, while humidity was most significantly associated with the hepatitis E epidemic. Regression analysis revealed a positive and significant coefficient between temperature and hepatitis A, B, and C epidemics in Guangdong, while humidity had a strong and significant association with the hepatitis E epidemic, and its relationship with temperature was relatively weak. CONCLUSIONS: These findings provide a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying different hepatitis epidemics and their connection to meteorological factors. This understanding can help guide local governments in predicting and preparing for future epidemics based on weather patterns and potentially aid in the development of effective prevention measures and policies.

[Assessment of the possible impact of hepatitis viruses on the development and course of autoimmune liver diseases].

BACKGROUND: Despite the well-studied pathogenesis, the etiology of autoimmune liver disease (AILD) remains unknown. AIM: To determine the significance of hepatitis A, B, C and E viruses in the development and progression of AILD. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A single-center case-control study included 139 patients with AILD: autoimmune hepatitis - AIH (n=46), primary biliary cholangitis - PBS (n=74), primary sclerosing cholangitis - PSC (n=19). Median age 56 years, IQR 48-65 years. 125 patients - without liver disease - control group (median age 55 years, IQR 46-65 years). Testing of blood serum samples for anti-HAV IgG, anti-HEV IgG, HBsAg, anti-HBc IgG, anti-HCV was carried out by solid-phase ELISA. All patients underwent fibroelastography. Needle liver biopsy - 70 patients: AIH (n=37), PBC (n=28) and PSC (n=5). RESULTS: Ab(IgG) to HAV and HBV were detected in patients with AILD significantly more often than in the control group (74.8% vs 54.4%; p<0.001). An increased risk of developing AILD was established in patients with the presence of antibodies to HAV, HBV and HEV (OR 2.491, CI 95% [1.481-4.190]). The highest risk of developing PBC was found in patients with antibodies to HAV and HBV (OR 3.008, 95% CI [1.633-5.542] and OR 2.515, 95% CI [1.242-5.093]). In patients with severe liver fibrosis (F3-F4 according to METAVIR), antibodies to HAV and HBV were detected significantly more often than in patients with F0-F2 [85% vs 65%; p=0.008]. CONCLUSION: In our work, we have demonstrated the relationship of past hepatitis A, B, E and AILD, as well as the high risk of developing severe fibrosis in patients with AILD and markers of hepatitis A and B viruses indicates the possible involvement of these viruses in the pathogenesis of AILD.

Cell entry and release of quasi-enveloped human hepatitis viruses.

Infectious hepatitis type A and type E are caused by phylogenetically distinct single-stranded, positive-sense RNA viruses that were once considered to be non-enveloped. However, studies show that both are released nonlytically from hepatocytes as 'quasi-enveloped' virions cloaked in host membranes. These virion types predominate in the blood of infected individuals and mediate virus spread within the liver. They lack virally encoded proteins on their surface and are resistant to neutralizing anti-capsid antibodies induced by infection, yet they efficiently enter cells and initiate new rounds of virus replication. In this Review, we discuss the mechanisms by which specific peptide sequences in the capsids of these quasi-enveloped virions mediate their endosomal sorting complexes required for transport (ESCRT)-dependent release from hepatocytes through multivesicular endosomes, what is known about how they enter cells, and the impact of capsid quasi-envelopment on host immunity and pathogenesis.

State-of-the-Art Chronic Hepatitis Viruses Research in Asia.

Approximately 400 million people worldwide are living with chronic viral hepatitis [...].

Metagenomic Detection of Divergent Insect- and Bat-Associated Viruses in Plasma from Two African Individuals Enrolled in Blood-Borne Surveillance.

Metagenomic next-generation sequencing (mNGS) has enabled the high-throughput multiplexed identification of sequences from microbes of potential medical relevance. This approach has become indispensable for viral pathogen discovery and broad-based surveillance of emerging or re-emerging pathogens. From 2015 to 2019, plasma was collected from 9586 individuals in Cameroon and the Democratic Republic of the Congo enrolled in a combined hepatitis virus and retrovirus surveillance program. A subset (n = 726) of the patient specimens was analyzed by mNGS to identify viral co-infections. While co-infections from known blood-borne viruses were detected, divergent sequences from nine poorly characterized or previously uncharacterized viruses were also identified in two individuals. These were assigned to the following groups by genomic and phylogenetic analyses: densovirus, nodavirus, jingmenvirus, bastrovirus, dicistrovirus, picornavirus, and cyclovirus. Although of unclear pathogenicity, these viruses were found circulating at high enough concentrations in plasma for genomes to be assembled and were most closely related to those previously associated with bird or bat excrement. Phylogenetic analyses and in silico host predictions suggested that these are invertebrate viruses likely transmitted through feces containing consumed insects or through contaminated shellfish. This study highlights the power of metagenomics and in silico host prediction in characterizing novel viral infections in susceptible individuals, including those who are immunocompromised from hepatitis viruses and retroviruses, or potentially exposed to zoonotic viruses from animal reservoir species.

Designing of thiazolidinones against chicken pox, monkey pox, and hepatitis viruses: A computational approach.

Computational designing of four different series (D-G) of thiazolidinone was done starting from different amines which was further condensed with various aldehydes. These underwent in silico molecular investigations for density functional theory (DFT), molecular docking, and absorption, distribution metabolism, excretion, and toxicity (ADMET) studies. The different electrochemical parameters of the compounds are predicted using quantum mechanical modeling approach with Gaussian. The docking software was used to dock the compounds against choosing PDB file for chickenpox, human immunodeficiency, hepatitis, and monkeypox virus as 1OSN, 1VZV, 6VLK, 1RTD, 3I7H, 3TYV, 4JU3, and 4QWO, respectively. The molecular interactions were visualized with discovery studio and maximum binding affinity was observed with D8 compounds against 4QWO (-13.383 kcal/mol) while for compound D5 against 1VZV which was -12.713 kcal/mol. Swiss ADME web tool was used to assess the drug-likeness of the designed compounds under consideration, and it is concluded that these molecules had a drug-like structure with almost zero violations.

Genetic Susceptibility to Hepatocellular Carcinoma in Patients with Chronic Hepatitis Virus Infection.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths globally. The risk factors for HCC include chronic hepatitis B and C virus infections, excessive alcohol consumption, obesity, metabolic disease, and aflatoxin exposure. In addition to these viral and environmental risk factors, individual genetic predisposition is a major determinant of HCC risk. Familial clustering of HCC has been observed, and a hereditary factor likely contributes to the risk of HCC development. The familial aggregation may depend on a shared environment and genetic background as well as the interactions of environmental and genetic factors. Genome-wide association studies (GWASs) are one of the most practical tools for mapping the patterns of inheritance for the most common form of genomic variation, single nucleotide polymorphisms. This approach is practical for investigating genetic variants across the human genome, which is affected by thousands of common genetic variants that do not follow Mendelian inheritance. This review article summarizes the academic knowledge of GWAS-identified genetic loci and their association with HCC. We summarize the GWASs in accordance with various chronic hepatitis virus infection statuses. This genetic profiling could be used to identify candidate biomarkers to refine HCC screening and management by enabling individual risk-based personalization and stratification. A more comprehensive understanding of the genetic mechanisms underlying individual predisposition to HCC may lead to improvements in the prevention and early diagnosis of HCC and the development of effective treatment strategies.

Recent Advances in Protective Vaccines against Hepatitis Viruses: A Narrative Review.

Vaccination has been confirmed to be the safest and, sometimes, the only tool of defense against threats from infectious diseases. The successful history of vaccination is evident in the control of serious viral infections, such as smallpox and polio. Viruses that infect human livers are known as hepatitis viruses and are classified into five major types from A to E, alphabetically. Although infection with hepatitis A virus (HAV) is known to be self-resolving after rest and symptomatic treatment, there were 7134 deaths from HAV worldwide in 2016. In 2019, hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) resulted in an estimated 820,000 and 290,000 deaths, respectively. Hepatitis delta virus (HDV) is a satellite virus that depends on HBV for producing its infectious particles in order to spread. The combination of HDV and HBV infection is considered the most severe form of chronic viral hepatitis. Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is another orally transmitted virus, common in low- and middle-income countries. In 2015, it caused 44,000 deaths worldwide. Safe and effective vaccines are already available to prevent hepatitis A and B. Here, we review the recent advances in protective vaccines against the five major hepatitis viruses.

Treatment options for unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma with hepatitis virus infection following sorafenib failure.

BACKGROUND: Currently, there are a few treatment options for unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) after progression following sorafenib (SOR) therapy, but with limited benefit. The purpose of this study was to investigate the efficacy and safety of tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) combined with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) as second-line treatment. METHODS: From May 2018 to May 2021, a total of 93 HCCs who failed SOR treatment were included in this study and divided into TKI group (n = 37) and TKI-ICI group (n = 56). Overall survival (OS), progression-free survival (PFS), objective response rate (ORR), disease control rate (DCR) and safety were estimated among the two groups. In addition, univariate and multivariate Cox regression analyses were performed for OS and PFS to identify possible prognostic factors. RESULTS: With a median follow-up time of 13.7 months, the median age of patients was 56 (range, 50-64) years and most were male. All of the patients were hepatitis virus-related HCC. Both median OS (7.63 months vs 19.23 months, P < 0.001) and median PFS (2.97 months vs 8.63 months, P < 0.001) were significantly improved in the TKI-ICI group compared to the TKI group. A significant increase in DCR was demonstrated in the TKI-ICI group compared to the TKI group (83.9% vs 45.9%, P = 0.0003), although no significant difference in ORR was reported (21.4% vs 8.1%, P = 0.1552). Multivariate Cox regression analysis of OS and PFS revealed that second-line regimen was an independent protective factor affecting death and progression in HCCs after SOR failure. In addition, Child-Pugh B7 was an independent risk factor of OS. Finally, there was no significant difference in the incidence of any grade or grade 3/4 adverse events (AEs) between the two groups, and no treatment-related deaths were observed. CONCLUSION: This real-world study suggests that the combination of TKIs and ICIs benefits more than mono-TKIs and is well tolerated in HCCs with hepatitis virus infection after SOR failure.

A novel cDNA-uPA/SCID/Rag2-/- /Jak3-/- mouse model for hepatitis virus infection and reconstruction of human immune system.

Although human hepatocyte-transplanted immunodeficient mice support infection with hepatitis viruses, these mice fail to develop viral hepatitis due to the lack of an adaptive immune system. In this study, we generated new immunodeficiency cDNA-urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA)/SCID/Rag2-/- /Jak3-/- mice and established a mouse model with both a humanized liver and immune system. Transplantation of human hepatocytes with human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-A24 resulted in establishment of a highly replaced liver in cDNA-uPA/SCID/Rag2-/- /Jak3-/- mice. These mice were successfully infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) for a prolonged period and facilitate analysis of the effect of anti-HCV drugs. Administration of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) obtained from an HLA-A24 donor resulted in establishment of 22.6%-81.3% human CD45-positive mononuclear cell chimerism in liver-infiltrating cells without causing graft-versus-host disease in cDNA-uPA/SCID/Rag2-/- /Jak3-/- mice without human hepatocyte transplantation. When mice were transplanted with human hepatocytes and then administered HLA-A24-positive human PBMCs, an alloimmune response between transplanted human hepatocytes and PBMCs occurred, with production of transplanted hepatocyte-specific anti-HLA antibody. In conclusion, we succeeded in establishing a humanized liver/immune system characterized by an allo-reaction between transplanted human immune cells and human liver using a novel cDNA-uPA/SCID/Rag2-/- /Jak3-/- mouse. This mouse model can be used to generate a chronic hepatitis mouse model with a human immune system with application not only to hepatitis virus virology but also to investigation of the pathology of post-transplantation liver rejection.

CRISPR/Cas9 as a New Antiviral Strategy for Treating Hepatitis Viral Infections.

Hepatitis is an inflammatory liver disease primarily caused by hepatitis A (HAV), B (HBV), C (HCV), D (HDV), and E (HEV) viruses. The chronic forms of hepatitis resulting from HBV and HCV infections can progress to cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), while acute hepatitis can lead to acute liver failure, sometimes resulting in fatality. Viral hepatitis was responsible for over 1 million reported deaths annually. The treatment of hepatitis caused by viral infections currently involves the use of interferon-α (IFN-α), nucleoside inhibitors, and reverse transcriptase inhibitors (for HBV). However, these methods do not always lead to a complete cure for viral infections, and chronic forms of the disease pose significant treatment challenges. These facts underscore the urgent need to explore novel drug developments for the treatment of viral hepatitis. The discovery of the CRISPR/Cas9 system and the subsequent development of various modifications of this system have represented a groundbreaking advance in the quest for innovative strategies in the treatment of viral infections. This technology enables the targeted disruption of specific regions of the genome of infectious agents or the direct manipulation of cellular factors involved in viral replication by introducing a double-strand DNA break, which is targeted by guide RNA (spacer). This review provides a comprehensive summary of our current knowledge regarding the application of the CRISPR/Cas system in the regulation of viral infections caused by HAV, HBV, and HCV. It also highlights new strategies for drug development aimed at addressing both acute and chronic forms of viral hepatitis.

What role for cellular metabolism in the control of hepatitis viruses?

Hepatitis B, C and D viruses (HBV, HCV, HDV, respectively) specifically infect human hepatocytes and often establish chronic viral infections of the liver, thus escaping antiviral immunity for years. Like other viruses, hepatitis viruses rely on the cellular machinery to meet their energy and metabolite requirements for replication. Although this was initially considered passive parasitism, studies have shown that hepatitis viruses actively rewire cellular metabolism through molecular interactions with specific enzymes such as glucokinase, the first rate-limiting enzyme of glycolysis. As part of research efforts in the field of immunometabolism, it has also been shown that metabolic changes induced by viruses could have a direct impact on the innate antiviral response. Conversely, detection of viral components by innate immunity receptors not only triggers the activation of the antiviral defense but also induces in-depth metabolic reprogramming that is essential to support immunological functions. Altogether, these complex triangular interactions between viral components, innate immunity and hepatocyte metabolism may explain why chronic hepatitis infections progressively lead to liver inflammation and progression to cirrhosis, fibrosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). In this manuscript, we first present a global overview of known connections between the innate antiviral response and cellular metabolism. We then report known molecular mechanisms by which hepatitis viruses interfere with cellular metabolism in hepatocytes and discuss potential consequences on the innate immune response. Finally, we present evidence that drugs targeting hepatocyte metabolism could be used as an innovative strategy not only to deprive viruses of key metabolites, but also to restore the innate antiviral response that is necessary to clear infection.

Exploring the molecular mechanism of hepatitis virus inducing hepatocellular carcinoma by microarray data and immune infiltrates analysis.

The number of new cases of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) worldwide reached 910,000, ranking the sixth, 80% HCC is associated with viruses, so exploring the molecular mechanism of viral carcinogenicity is imperative. The study showed that both HBV and HCV associated HCC and non-viral HCC have the same molecular phenotype (low gene expression and inhibition of immune pathways), but in the tumor immune micro-environment, there is excessive M2-type macrophage polarization in virus-associated hepatocellular carcinoma. To address this phenomenon, the data sets were analyzed and identified five hub genes (POLR2A, POLR2B, RPL5, RPS6, RPL23A) involved in viral gene expression and associated with PI3K-Akt-mTOR pathway activation by six algorithms. In addition, numerous studies have reported that M2-type macrophages participate in the hepatic fibro-pathological process of the development of HCC and are regulated by the PI3K-Akt-mTOR pathway. On this basis, the study showed that hepatitis virus causes abnormal expression of hub genes, leading to the activation of the pathway, which in turn promote the differentiation of M2-type macrophages and eventually promote the formation of liver fibrosis, leading to the occurrence of HCC. In addition, these hub genes are regulated by transcription factors and m6A enzyme, and have good prognosis and diagnostic value. With regard to drug reuse, the results suggest that patients with virus-related HCC for whom Cytidine triphosphate disodium salt and Guanosine-5'-Triphosphate are used as supplementary therapy, and may have a better prognosis. In conclusion, the study has identified novel molecules that are carcinogenic to hepatitis viruses and are expected to serve as molecular markers and targets for diagnosis and treatment.

Association between the risk of hepatitis virus-related hepatocellular carcinoma and EGF polymorphism: A PRISMA-compliant updated meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: The study aims to provide a comprehensive account of the association between the epidermal growth factor (EGF) + 61A/G polymorphism (rs4444903) and susceptibility to virus-related hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). METHODS: Electronic searching of the Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure, Wanfang, Chinese Scientific Journal Database (VIP), PubMed, Web of Science, and Embase was conducted to select eligible studies. Odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) were calculated to assess the strength of the association. RESULTS: In this study, a total of 18 articles were included with 2692 cases and 5835 controls for assessing the association between rs4444903 and HCC risk. The pooled results showed that the EGF + 61A/G polymorphism was significantly associated with the risk of virus-related HCC in all genetic models. Stratified analyses were conducted based on ethnicity, study quality, source of controls, type of controls, number of cases and genotyping method. The results showed that EGF + 61A/G polymorphisms significantly affect HCC susceptibility in different stratified populations. High heterogeneity was observed across included studies, and meta-regression analysis demonstrated that race, type of controls, and study quality contribute to the observed heterogeneity. CONCLUSION: This pooled analysis found that EGF + 61A/G polymorphism was significantly associated with the risk of HCC.

Hepatitis Viruses Control Host Immune Responses by Modifying the Exosomal Biogenesis Pathway and Cargo.

The development of smart immune evasion mechanisms is crucial for the establishment of acute and chronic viral hepatitis. Hepatitis is a major health problem worldwide arising from different causes, such as pathogens, metabolic disorders, and xenotoxins, with the five hepatitis viruses A, B, C, D, and E (HAV, HBV, HCV, HDV, and HEV) representing the majority of the cases. Most of the hepatitis viruses are considered enveloped. Recently, it was reported that the non-enveloped HAV and HEV are, in reality, quasi-enveloped viruses exploiting exosomal-like biogenesis mechanisms for budding. Regardless, all hepatitis viruses use exosomes to egress, regulate, and eventually escape from the host immune system, revealing another key function of exosomes apart from their recognised role in intercellular communication. This review will discuss how the hepatitis viruses exploit exosome biogenesis and transport capacity to establish successful infection and spread. Then, we will outline the contribution of exosomes in viral persistence and liver disease progression.