Kombucha Tea-associated microbes remodel host metabolic pathways to suppress lipid accumulation.

The popularity of the ancient, probiotic-rich beverage Kombucha Tea (KT) has surged in part due to its purported health benefits, which include protection against metabolic diseases; however, these claims have not been rigorously tested and the mechanisms underlying host response to the probiotics in KT are unknown. Here, we establish a reproducible method to maintain C. elegans on a diet exclusively consisting of Kombucha Tea-associated microbes (KTM), which mirrors the microbial community found in the fermenting culture. KT microbes robustly colonize the gut of KTM-fed animals and confer normal development and fecundity. Intriguingly, animals consuming KTMs display a marked reduction in total lipid stores and lipid droplet size. We find that the reduced fat accumulation phenotype is not due to impaired nutrient absorption, but rather it is sustained by a programed metabolic response in the intestine of the host. KTM consumption triggers widespread transcriptional changes within core lipid metabolism pathways, including upregulation of a suite of lysosomal lipase genes that are induced during lipophagy. The elevated lysosomal lipase activity, coupled with a decrease in lipid droplet biogenesis, is partially required for the reduction in host lipid content. We propose that KTM consumption stimulates a fasting-like response in the C. elegans intestine by rewiring transcriptional programs to promote lipid utilization. Our results provide mechanistic insight into how the probiotics in Kombucha Tea reshape host metabolism and how this popular beverage may impact human metabolism.

Application of Iron Nanoparticles Synthesized from a Bioflocculant Produced by Yeast Strain Pichia kudriavzevii Obtained from Kombucha Tea SCOBY in the Treatment of Wastewater.

Studying the production of Iron (Fe) nanoparticles using natural substances is an intriguing area of research in nanotechnology, as these nanoparticles possess biocompatibility and natural stability, which make them useful for a variety of industrial applications. The study utilized Fe nanoparticles that were synthesized using a bioflocculant and applied to eliminate different kinds of pollutants and dyes found in wastewater and solutions. The study involved the generation of Fe nanoparticles through a bioflocculant obtained from Pichia kudriavzevii, which were evaluated for their flocculation and antimicrobial capabilities. The impact of the Fe nanoparticles on human embryonic kidney (HEK 293) cell lines was studied to assess their potential cytotoxicity effects. An array of spectroscopic and microscopic methods was employed to characterize the biosynthesized Fe nanoparticles, including SEM-EDX, FT-IR, TEM, XRD, UV-vis, and TGA. A highly efficient flocculating activity of 85% was achieved with 0.6 mg/mL dosage of Fe nanoparticles. The biosynthesized Fe nanoparticles demonstrated a noteworthy concentration-dependent cytotoxicity effect on HEK 293 cell lines with the highest concentration used resulting in 34% cell survival. The Fe nanoparticles exhibited strong antimicrobial properties against a variety of evaluated Gram-positive and Gram-negative microorganisms. The efficiency of removing dyes by the nanoparticles was found to be higher than 65% for the tested dyes, with the highest being 93% for safranine. The Fe nanoparticles demonstrated remarkable efficiency in removing various pollutants from wastewater. In comparison to traditional flocculants and the bioflocculant, biosynthesized Fe nanoparticles possess significant potential for eliminating both biological oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) from wastewater samples treated. Hence, the Fe nanoparticles synthesized in this way have the potential to substitute chemical flocculants in the treatment of wastewater.

Hands on Biofilm! Utilizing a public audience in a citizen science project to assess yield variability when culturing kombucha pellicle.

The pellicle biofilm generated during the Kombucha tea fermentation process has, when dried, textile-like properties that may have real-life applications. However, pellicle yield can vary depending on inoculation and incubation conditions, which affects research investigations on the properties of the pellicle. To generate data on variability to help define optimum pellicle growth conditions, as part of a public engagement event about biofilm, a citizen science activity was hosted whereby visitors to a science festival were invited to select incubation conditions and inoculate different media with liquid or solid (pellicle). More than 220 samples were inoculated (in excess of 1200 visitors, mainly in family groups). The most popular incubation conditions were coconut water or tea medium, 30°C/room temperature and liquid inoculum. The most productive/reproducible in terms of yield and variability were tea medium, 30°C, and liquid inoculum, which reflect some of the conditions most used in the domestic setting for kombucha culture. The event provided both useful research data and generated public interest in a research area of which many will have been unaware. Interest in the results of the activity, available several weeks after the activity, was sustained using email contact and FlickR for the dissemination of images and data.

On-line monitoring of total sugar during kombucha fermentation process by near-infrared spectroscopy: Comparison of linear and non-linear multiple calibration methods.

Kombucha is widely recognized for its health benefits, and it facilitates high-quality transformation and utilization of tea during the fermentation process. Implementing on-line monitoring for the kombucha production process is crucial to promote the valuable utilization of low-quality tea residue. Near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy, together with partial least squares (PLS), backpropagation neural network (BPANN), and their combination (PLS-BPANN), were utilized in this study to monitor the total sugar of kombucha. In all, 16 mathematical models were constructed and assessed. The results demonstrate that the PLS-BPANN model is superior to all others, with a determination coefficient (R2p) of 0.9437 and a root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP) of 0.8600 g/L and a good verification effect. The results suggest that NIR coupled with PLS-BPANN can be used as a non-destructive and on-line technique to monitor total sugar changes.

Identification of volatile compounds and metabolic pathway during ultrasound-assisted kombucha fermentation by HS-SPME-GC/MS combined with metabolomic analysis.

The current work combines headspace solid phase microextraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC/MS) with multivariate analysis fusion metabonomics for examining metabolite profile changes. The correlation with metabolic pathways during the fermentation of kombucha tea were comprehensively explored. For optimizing the fermentation process, ultrasound-assisted factors were explored. A total of 132 metabolites released by fermented kombucha were detected by HS-SPME-GC/MS. We employed the principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) to present the relationship between aroma components and fermentation time, of which the first two principal components respectively accounted for 60.3% and 6.5% of the total variance. Multivariate statistical analysis showed that during the fermentation of kombucha tea, there were significant differences in the phenotypes of metabolites in the samples, and 25 characteristic metabolites were selected as biomarkers. Leaf alcohol was first proposed as the characteristic volatile in the fermentation process of kombucha. Furthermore, we addressed the generation pathways of characteristic volatiles, their formation mechanisms, and the transformational correlation among them. Our findings provide a roadmap for future kombucha fermentation processing to enhance kombucha flavor and aroma.

Effect of kombucha intake on the gut microbiota and obesity-related comorbidities: A systematic review.

Kombucha is a fermented nonalcoholic tea-based beverage produced through a symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeasts. In vitro studies have demonstrated antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiproliferative, and anti-carcinogenic properties of kombucha. However, no systematic reviews have evaluated the effects of kombucha in vivo. Thus, we aimed to evaluate the evidence that exists so far about kombucha consumption on comorbidities associated with obesity as well as on the gut microbiota. The search was conducted in accordance with PRISMA and the protocol was registered in PROSPERO (registration number: CRD42020158917). The MEDLINE/PubMed, Web of Science, LILACS, SciELO, Scopus, and Science Direct databases were used in the search considering the following terms: "kombucha" OR "kombucha tea" OR "kombucha teas" OR "tea, kombucha" OR "teas, kombucha" NOT "review." Fifteen studies were included in this review. The results suggest that kombucha consumption attenuates oxidative stress and inflammation, improves the liver detoxification process, and reduces intestinal dysbiosis. There is evidence that kombucha consumption is beneficial for the control and treatment of obesity and associated comorbidities, as well as for the modulation of the gut microbiota in vivo.

Effects of Fermentation Time and Type of Tea on the Content of Micronutrients in Kombucha Fermented Tea.

The fermented tea beverage Kombucha is obtained through a series of biochemical and enzymatic reactions carried out by symbiotic cultures of bacteria and yeasts (SCOBY). It contains organic acids, vitamins, amino acids, and biologically active compounds, notably polyphenols, derived mainly from tea. Kombucha exhibits a range of health-promoting properties, including antioxidant or detoxifying effects. This fermented beverage is traditionally brewed with black tea, but other types of tea are used increasingly, which may have significant implications in terms of chemical composition and health-promoting effects. In this preliminary study, we investigated the content of micronutrients (manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), chromium (Cr) and zinc (Zn)) by the ICP-OES method in Kombucha prepared with black, red, green and white tea at different time points of fermentation (1, 7, 14 days). It should be noted that the composition of separate ingredients such as tea, leaven or sugar has not been studied. Kombucha had the highest content of zinc-0.36 mg/L to 2.08 mg/L, which accounts for between 3% and 26% of the RDA (Recommended Dietary Allowance) for adults, and the smallest amounts of chromium (0.03 mg/L to 0.09 mg/L), which however represents as much as between 75% and 232% of the RDA. It has been demonstrated that the type of tea as well as the day of fermentation have a significant effect on the concentrations of selected minerals. Kombucha can therefore supplement micronutrients in the human diet.

Kombucha tea improves glucose tolerance and reduces hepatic steatosis in obese mice.

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), often associated with obesity, is becoming one of the most common liver diseases worldwide. It is estimated to affect one billion individuals and may be present in approximately 25% of the population globally. NAFLD is viewed as a hepatic manifestation of metabolic syndrome, with humans and animal models presenting dyslipidemia, hypertension, and diabetes. The gut-liver axis has been considered the main pathogenesis branch for NAFLD development. Considering that foods or beverages could modulate the gastrointestinal tract, immune system, energy homeostasis regulation, and even the gut-liver axis, we conducted an exploratory study to analyze the effects of kombucha probiotic on hepatic steatosis, glucose tolerance, and hepatic enzymes involved in carbohydrate and fat metabolism using a pre-clinical model. The diet-induced obese mice presented glucose intolerance, hyperinsulinemia, hepatic steatosis, increased collagen fiber deposition in liver vascular spaces, and upregulated TNF-alpha and SREBP-1 gene expression. Mice receiving the kombucha supplement displayed improved glucose tolerance, reduced hyperinsulinemia, decreased citrate synthase and phosphofructokinase-1 enzyme activities, downregulated G-protein-coupled bile acid receptor, also known as TGR5, and farnesol X receptor gene expression, and attenuated steatosis and hepatic collagen fiber deposition. The improvement in glucose tolerance was accompanied by the recovery of acute insulin-induced liver AKT serine phosphorylation. Thus, it is possible to conclude that this probiotic drink has a beneficial effect in reducing the metabolic alterations associated with diet-induced obesity. This probiotic beverage deserves an extension of studies to confirm or refute its potentially beneficial effects.

A systematic, complexity-reduction approach to dissect the kombucha tea microbiome.

One defining goal of microbiome research is to uncover mechanistic causation that dictates the emergence of structural and functional traits of microbiomes. However, the extraordinary degree of ecosystem complexity has hampered the realization of the goal. Here, we developed a systematic, complexity-reducing strategy to mechanistically elucidate the compositional and metabolic characteristics of microbiome by using the kombucha tea microbiome as an example. The strategy centered around a two-species core that was abstracted from but recapitulated the native counterpart. The core was convergent in its composition, coordinated on temporal metabolic patterns, and capable for pellicle formation. Controlled fermentations uncovered the drivers of these characteristics, which were also demonstrated translatable to provide insights into the properties of communities with increased complexity and altered conditions. This work unravels the pattern and process underlying the kombucha tea microbiome, providing a potential conceptual framework for mechanistic investigation of microbiome behaviors.

Microbial Diversity and Interaction Specificity in Kombucha Tea Fermentations.

Despite the popularity of kombucha tea, the distribution of different microbes across kombucha ferments and how those microbes interact within communities are not well characterized. Using metagenomics, comparative genomics, synthetic community experiments, and metabolomics, we determined the taxonomic, ecological, and functional diversity of 23 distinct kombuchas from across the United States. Shotgun metagenomic sequencing demonstrated that the bacterium Komagataeibacter rhaeticus and the yeast Brettanomyces bruxellensis were the most common microbes in the sampled kombucha communities. To determine the specificity of bacterium-yeast interactions, we experimentally quantified microbial interactions within kombucha biofilms by measuring densities of interacting species and biofilm production. In pairwise combinations of bacteria and yeast, B. bruxellensis and individual strains of Komagataeibacter spp. were sufficient to form kombucha fermentations with robust biofilms, but Zygosaccharomyces bisporus, another yeast found in kombucha, did not stimulate bacteria to produce biofilms. Profiling the spent media of both yeast species using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy suggested that the enhanced ability of B. bruxellensis to ferment and produce key metabolites in sucrose-sweetened tea may explain why it stimulates biofilm formation. Comparative genomics demonstrated that Komagataeibacter spp. with >99% genomic similarity can still have dramatic differences in biofilm production, with strong producers yielding five times more biofilm than the weakest producers. IMPORTANCE Through an integration of metagenomic and experimental approaches, our work reveals the diversity and nature of interactions among key taxa in kombucha microbiomes through the construction of synthetic microbial pairs. Manipulation of these microbes in kombucha has the potential to shape both the fermentation qualities of kombucha and the production of biofilms and is valuable for kombucha beverage producers, biofilm engineers, and synthetic ecologists.

Recent advances in Kombucha tea: Microbial consortium, chemical parameters, health implications and biocellulose production.

In the present review the latest research studies on Kombucha tea are summarized. Special attention has been paid on microbial population, chemical parameters, biocellulose production, and mainly, on the latest evidences of the biological activities of Kombucha tea. Kombucha tea is a fermented sweetened black or green tea which is obtained from a fermentative process driven by a symbiotic culture of yeast, acetic acid bacteria and lactic acid bacteria. In the last years, its consumption has increasingly grown due to its multiple and potential benefits on human health. This fact has motivated a significant increase in the number of research studies that are focused on the biological activities of this beverage. In this context, this review gathers the main studies that have analyzed the different properties of Kombucha tea (as antioxidant, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, antitumoral, anti-inflammatory, antihypertensive, hepatoprotective, hypocholesterolemic, and probiotic activities). It is highlighted that nowadays few human-based evidences are available to prove the beneficial effect of Kombucha tea on humans' health. In conclusion, further work on Kombucha tea is needed since nowadays few information is available on both clinical studies and the characterization of bioactive compounds and their properties.

Kombucha drink enriched with sea grapes (Caulerpa racemosa) as potential functional beverage to contrast obesity: An in vivo and in vitro approach.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Obesity is currently a global issue and is a major cause of the metabolic disorder, including dyslipidemia. However, currently approved treatments have various limitations including serious side effects, numerous contraindications, and lack of acceptance. Caulerpa racemosa, also referred as Sea grapes, is a seaweed known for its various benefits. C. racemosa extract has the potential to improve lipid profile and role as an anti-obese agent. In order to maximize its health benefits, C. racemosa was made using kombucha drink as a carrier medium. This study aims to assess the effect of Sea grapes kombucha drink on lipase activity in vitro and lipid profile in vivo. METHODS: A lipase inhibition test was carried out by incubating Sea grapes kombucha drink compared with orlistat as the control in porcine pancreatic lipase and p-nitrophenyl butyrate in reaction buffer. A total of four groups were made, each containing 10 male swiss webster albino mice; group A received standard dry pellet diet as control, group B received cholesterol and fat-enriched diets (CFED), group C and D received CFED and 150 and 300 mg/kgBW of kombucha drink from Sea grapes respectively for 4 weeks. RESULTS: Sea grapes kombucha drink improved lipid profiles in the way of reducing total cholesterol, triglyceride, LDL, and increasing HDL levels compared to CFED and normal groups. The effect was more robust following the incrementing dose of the Sea grapes excluding total cholesterol. The lipase inhibitory activity of Sea grapes kombucha drink was similar to orlistat at a dose of 250 µg/mL, otherwise, orlistat was superior in the lower doses. CONCLUSIONS: Sea grapes kombucha drink treatment also induced weight loss and increased level of liver SOD. Kombucha drink from C. racemosa has good potential as a functional beverage with anti-obese and lipid improving activity.

Bacterial cellulose films production by Kombucha symbiotic community cultured on different herbal infusions.

The symbiotic community of bacteria and yeast (SCOBY) of Kombucha beverage produces a floating film composed of bacterial cellulose, a distinctive biobased material. In this work, Kombucha fermentation was carried out in six different herbal infusions, where SCOBY was able to synthesise cellulosic films. Infusions of black and green tea, yerba mate, lavender, oregano and fennel added with sucrose (100 g/l) were used as culture media. In all cultures, film production resulted in a maximum after 21 days. Yield conversion, process productivity and antioxidant activity were quantified. Macroscopic and microscopic features of films were determined based on electronic microscopy, calorimetric and mechanical properties and hydration behaviour. Native films from yerba mate had a remarkable antioxidant activity of 93 ± 4% of radical inhibition due to plant polyphenols, which could prevent food oxidation. Results revealed that films retained natural bioactive substances preserving important physicochemical properties, essential for developing active materials.

Microbial Diversity and Characteristics of Kombucha as Revealed by Metagenomic and Physicochemical Analysis.

Kombucha is a fermented tea made from a Symbiotic Culture of Bacteria and Yeast (SCOBY) with a long history of use as a health tonic. It is likely that most health benefits come from the tea and fermentation metabolites from specific microbial communities. Despite its growing importance as a functional health drink, the microbial ecosystem present in kombucha has not been fully documented. To characterize the microbial composition and biochemical properties of 'The Good Brew' original base kombucha, we used metagenomics amplicon (16S rRNA and ITS) sequencing to identify the microbial communities at the taxonomic level. We identified 34 genera with 200 microbial species yet described in kombucha. The dominance of organic acid producing microorganisms Acetobacter, Komagataeibacter and Starmerella are healthy for the human gut and their glucose metabolising activities have a putative role in preventing conditions such as diabetes and obesity. Kombucha contains high protein (3.31 µg/mL), high phenolic content (290.4 mg/100 mL) and low sugars (glucose: 1.87 g/L; sucrose 1.11 g/L; fructose: 0.05 g/L) as compared to green tea. The broad microbial diversity with proven health benefits for the human gut suggests kombucha is a powerful probiotic. These findings are important to improve the commercial value of kombucha and uncover the immense prospects for health benefits.

Kombuchas from green and black teas reduce oxidative stress, liver steatosis and inflammation, and improve glucose metabolism in Wistar rats fed a high-fat high-fructose diet.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of green and black tea kombuchas consumption on adiposity, lipid and glucose metabolism, liver steatosis, oxidative stress, and inflammation in Wistar rats fed a high-fat high-fructose (HFHF) diet. Wistar rats, after 8 weeks to induce metabolic alterations, were divided into an AIN-93M control group, HFHF control group, green tea kombucha + HFHF diet (GTK group), and black tea kombucha + HFHF diet (BTK group), for 10 weeks. The kombuchas improved glucose metabolism, plasma total antioxidant capacity, superoxide dismutase activity, and decreased nitric oxide concentration. Moreover, both kombuchas reduced systemic inflammation by decreasing the neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio (NLR), reduced the total adipose tissue and blood triglyceride, and reverted liver steatosis (from grade 2 to 1), besides the modulation of genes related to adipogenesis and ß-oxidation. Therefore, kombuchas from green and black teas have bioactive properties that can help control metabolic alterations induced by the HFHF diet.

Effect of fermentation time on the content of bioactive compounds with cosmetic and dermatological properties in Kombucha Yerba Mate extracts.

Kombucha is a beverage made by fermenting sugared tea using a symbiotic culture of bacteria belonging to the genus Acetobacter, Gluconobacter, and the yeasts of the genus Saccharomyces along with glucuronic acid, which has health-promoting properties. The paper presents the evaluation of ferments as a potential cosmetic raw material obtained from Yerba Mate after different fermentation times with the addition of Kombucha. Fermented and unfermented extracts were compared in terms of chemical composition and biological activity. The antioxidant potential of obtained ferments was analyzed by evaluating the scavenging of external and intracellular free radicals. Cytotoxicity was determined on keratinocyte and fibroblast cell lines, resulting in significant increase in cell viability for the ferments. The ferments, especially after 14 and 21 days of fermentation showed strong ability to inhibit (about 40% for F21) the activity of lipoxygenase, collagenase and elastase enzymes and long-lasting hydration after their application on the skin. Moreover, active chemical compounds, including phenolic acids, xanthines and flavonoids were identified by HPLC/ESI-MS. The results showed that both the analyzed Yerba Mate extract and the ferments obtained with Kombucha may be valuable ingredients in cosmetic products.

Effects of Long-Term Storage on Radical Scavenging Properties and Phenolic Content of Kombucha from Black Tea.

Kombucha is a fermented beverage. Its consumption has significantly increased during the last decades due to its perceived beneficial effects. For this reason, it has become a highly commercialized drink that is produced industrially. However, kombucha is still also a homemade beverage, and the parameters which, besides its organoleptic characteristics, define the duration of its potential beneficial properties over time, are poorly known. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the effect of 9-month storage at 4 °C with 30-day sampling on the pH, total phenolic, and flavonoid contents, free radical scavenging properties of kombucha fermented from black tea. Our results highlighted that, after four months, the phenolic content decreased significantly from the initial value of 234.1 ± 1.4 µg GAE mL-1 to 202.9 ± 2.1 µg GAE mL-1, as well its antioxidant capacity tested by two in vitro models, DPPH, and ABTS assays. Concomitantly, the pH value increased from 2.82 to 3.16. The novel findings of this pilot study revealed that kombucha from sugared black tea can be stored at refrigerator temperature for four months. After this period the antioxidant properties of kombucha are no longer retained.

Kombucha ameliorates LPS-induced sepsis in a mouse model.

As a popular traditional fermented beverage, kombucha has been extensively studied for its health benefits. However, the science behind the anti-inflammatory effect of kombucha has not been well studied, and there is an urgent need to uncover the secrets of the anti-inflammatory properties of kombucha. Here, we investigate kombucha's protective effects against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced sepsis and on the intestinal microecology in mice. The contents of reducing sugars, polyphenols, catechins, and organic acids in the kombucha group were identified using various methods. The results showed that the concentrations of acetic acid, gluconic acid, polyphenol, and glucuronic acid in the kombucha group were 55.70 ± 2.57 g L-1, 50.20 ± 1.92 g L-1, 2.36 ± 0.31, and 1.39 ± 0.22 g L-1, respectively. The result also demonstrated that kombucha effectively improves the survival rate from 0% to 40%, and increases the thermoregulation in LPS-treated mice, which showed decreased mobility and had lost their appetite for food. Furthermore, kombucha reduced the levels of tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukins (IL)-1ß and IL-6, restored the levels of T cells and macrophages in LPS-challenged mice, alleviated the histopathological damage, and inhibited NF-κB signaling in mice with LPS-induced sepsis. We demonstrated that kombucha effectively prevents cellular immune function disorder in mice at the initial stage of sepsis and exerts an immunomodulatory effect. In addition, the effect of kombucha on the gut microbiota was investigated during sepsis. Kombucha supplementation altered the diversity of the gut microbiota and promoted the growth of butyrate-producing bacteria, which exert anti-inflammatory effects. Our results illustrate the potential of kombucha as a novel anti-inflammatory agent against the development of systemic inflammatory responses associated with sepsis.

Ethanol Concentration of Kombucha Teas in British Columbia, Canada.

ABSTRACT: Kombucha is a sweetened tea beverage fermented by bacterial and yeast cultures. Sweeteners, such as glucose, sucrose, fructose, and others are converted by yeasts into ethanol and then by Acetobacter and other bacterial species into a weak acetic acid solution that is diluted, flavored, and packaged into glass or aluminum cans for consumer consumption. Naturally, fermented kombucha contains 0 to 3% alcohol by volume (ABV). However, kombucha containing ethanol is concerning for pregnant women and young children for whom low levels of ethanol consumption (<3% ABV) create adverse medical outcomes. In the province of British Columbia (BC), Canadian beverages containing >1% ABV are regulated as liquor. This study assessed ethanol concentrations in kombucha collected from processors and purchased at retail venues in BC. Ethanol values were compared with the place of manufacture (country or province) and place of purchase (grocery stores, restaurants, farmers' markets, recreational centers, and processors). Ethanol (n = 684) levels were measured by using a headspace gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method with a detection limit of 0.0002% ABV for ethanol. Overall, teas contained mean and median ethanol of 0.77 and 0.62% ABV, respectively, ranging from nondetectable up to 3.62% ABV. Four kombucha teas (0.6%) made by BC processors tested over 3% ABV, and 31.5% of samples contained ethanol that exceeded the BC regulatory limits for nonalcoholic beverages of 1% ABV. Kombucha manufactured in BC had significantly higher mean ethanol values (1.16% ABV) in comparison to all other places of manufacture. Similarly, mean ethanol tea values obtained from BC processors (1.2% ABV) and restaurants (1.01% ABV) were significantly higher than those obtained at other retail venues. This study demonstrates the potential for alcohol harm to at-risk populations consuming kombucha teas sold in BC.