The relationship between ethnocentrism and xenophobia level and predictors: A descriptive and correlational study of nurses working in two cities where refugees live intensively in Turkey.

Determining the ethnocentrism and xenophobia levels of nurses contributes to nurses' awareness regarding their attitudes on the issue and providing quality care. This descriptive and correlational study aimed to determine the relationship between ethnocentrism and xenophobia levels of nurses working in hospitals located in two different border regions where refugees live intensively in Turkey. The study was conducted with 386 nurses who were working in two different hospitals located in two cities in the south of Turkey. Data were collected using the "Personal Information Form," "Ethnocentrism Scale," and "Xenophobia Scale." About half of the nurses did not want to care for foreign patients. There was a positive and statistically significant relationship between mean scores of the Ethnocentrism Scale and the Xenophobia Scale (p < 0.05). The regression analysis indicated that the level of ethnocentrism explains the level of xenophobia by 9%. Nurses had a high level of xenophobia and moderate ethnocentric attitudes. The level of xenophobia increased as the ethnocentrism level of nurses increased. It is recommended to conduct further studies to determine different predictors of xenophobia among nurses.

Investigation the relationship between xenophobic attitude and intercultural sensitivity level in nurses.

OBJECTIVE: The level of intercultural sensitivity is important for nurses to approach the individual's culture in care and treatment without prejudice. In this study, it was aimed to determine the effect of nurses' intercultural sensitivity level on xenophobic attitude. METHODS: This quantitative cross-sectional study was conducted at Van Training and Research Hospital between January and June 2022. The Introductory Information Form, the Xenophobia Scale, and the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale were used to collect the research data. SPSS-25 package program and R programming language 4.1.3 are used. RESULTS: This study was conducted with 235 nurses. According to the findings obtained in our study, the regression model determine the effect of intercultural sensitivity on xenophobia level was found to be F(1,233) = 69.857, p = 0.001, and 23.1 % (R2 = 0.231) of the variance in the dependent variable was explained by the independent variable. Intercultural sensitivity has a negative and significant effect on the level of xenophobia (ß = -0.480; t (233) = -8.358, p = 0.001). When comparing the performance of all variables with machine learning algorithms for the prediction model, the best performing algorithm was found to be Random Forest (RF). The contributions of these variables to the model were calculated with Shapley Additive Explanations (SHAP) values. The most important variables that should be included in the model to predict the xenophobia variable are the respect for cultural differences sub-dimension and intercultural sensitivity variables. CONCLUSION: It was determined that as the level of intercultural sensitivity of the nurses increased, their xenophobic attitudes decreased. Longitudinal studies on xenophobic attitude in nurses are recommended. It is recommended to make predictions with different machine learning models.

A historical evaluation of the disease avoidance theory of xenophobia.

Historical psychology is emerging as a multidisciplinary field for studying psychological phenomena in a historical context. Historical records can also serve as testbeds for psychological theories, particularly the evolutionary ones. In Study 1 we aimed to gather evidence to evaluate the disease avoidance theory of xenophobia by analyzing the narratives of European explorers from the15th and 16th centuries. Contrary to the theory's expectations, the narratives revealed numerous instances of close physical contact between the explorers and the native populations. Furthermore, rather than using disgust-laden words, the explorers portrayed the natives in a positive light. In Study 2, we employed a word embedding algorithm to explore whether native group names and their unfamiliar appearance were associated with disgust-laden words in the 19th century travel literature. The results indicated that while native group names showed such associations, their appearance did not. Finally, through network analysis, we demonstrated that embedded words such as "savages" mediated the perception of native groups as potential disease-threat. The findings highlight the significance of cultural factors that evolve over time, rather than cognitive adaptations believed to have evolved prior to the emergence of human culture, in explaining xenophobia.

Investigation of differences in xenophobia, prosociality level, and sociodemographic characteristics in nursing students.

AIMS: This study aimed to examine differences in xenophobia, prosocial behavior tendency, and sociodemographic characteristics among nursing students. MATERIALS & METHODS: The participants were 227 nursing students (29.1% male, 70.9% female) attending the nursing department in the spring semester of the 2019-2020 academic year. We used a personal identification form, xenophobia scale, and prosocial behavior tendency scale to collect the data. RESULTS: Among the participants, 24.7% were in first year, 30.4% were in second year, 21.6% were in third year, and 23.3% were in fourth year. Female students had higher prosocial behavior disposition, altruistic, and submissive scores than their male counterparts. The second-year students' prosocial behavior scores were higher than those of the third-year students. The male students' hatred, humiliation, and xenophobia scores were higher than those of the female students. DISCUSSION: The xenophobia scores were higher in those with two living parents and lower in those whose mothers had secondary education. We used the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, Shapiro-Wilk test, and graphical assessments to test the quantitative data's compliance with normal distribution. We also employed the Student's t-test and one-way analysis of variance for data showing a normal distribution and Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis tests for data showing non-normal distribution. To evaluate the relationships among variables, we used the Pearson correlation analysis for normally distributed variables and Spearman's correlation analysis for non-normally distributed variables. CONCLUSION: Women's prosocial behavior tendency total score was higher than men's, and men's xenophobia total score was higher than women's. There was a weak negative correlation between the positive behavior tendency and xenophobia total scores.

Correlation between cultural competence, xenophobia, and attitudes towards brain drain in nursing students.

This study aimed to determine the correlation between cultural competence, xenophobia, and attitudes to brain drain in nursing students. Individuals with high levels of intercultural competence have more successful social and emotional interactions with people from various cultural backgrounds. A cross-sectional and correlational design was used. This study was conducted on 473 nursing students from two different provinces neighboring the Syrian border between October 28th and December 28th, 2021. An information form and nurse cultural competence, xenophobia, and attitude scales for brain drain were used to collect data. A negative nonsignificant correlation between cultural competence and xenophobia and a positive nonsignificant correlation between cultural competence and attitude towards brain drain were found. The students had high levels of cultural competence and positive attitudes towards brain drain, and a moderate level of xenophobia. Socio-demographic characteristics affected cultural competence, xenophobia, and attitudes towards brain drain.

Investigation of the Relationship Between Xenophobic Attitude and Intercultural Sensitivity Level in Health Education Students.

INTRODUCTION: Intercultural sensitivity and xenophobia levels of health education students can affect the care they give to the patient. It is important to know the level of intercultural sensitivity and xenophobia of students receiving health education and to determine the relationship between them. The purpose of the study was to examine the relationship between xenophobic attitudes and intercultural sensitivity among university students. METHODS: This quantitative cross-sectional research was conducted in between January and June 2022 with health education students. The study conducted with health education students at Gumushane University and Agri Ibrahim Cecen University. Child Development, Nursing, Emergency Management Services/Technicians, Nutrition and Dietetics, Elderly care, Social services, Medical Laboratory Techniques, and Disabled Care studying at these universities were included in the study. Students who received health education and wanted to participate voluntarily in the study were included. Students aged 18 and over, studying in the health education department of the university, studying in the 1, 2, 3, 4th classes and volunteering to participate in the study were included in the study. The Introductory Information Form, the Xenophobia Scale, and the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale were used to collect the research data. RESULTS: This study was conducted with 789 students. According to our study, a significant negative correlation was found between the students' xenophobia scale and the intercultural sensitivity scale total score means (p < .05). Intercultural sensitivity has a negative and significant effect on the level of xenophobia (ß = -0.116; t (787) = -3.283, p = .001). A significant difference was found between the students' Xenophobia Scale total score mean and gender, department, and grade (p < .05) as was the case between Intercultural Sensitivity Scale total score mean and gender, department, grade, immigrant acquaintance, and foreign language knowledge (English language) level (p < .05). DISCUSSION: Intercultural sensitivity has a negative and significant effect on the level of xenophobia. It can negatively affect the level of caregiving of students receiving health education. It is thought that intercultural sensitivity will be developed by including course content in the curriculum to increase students' intercultural effectiveness and awareness levels and to reduce xenophobic prejudices.

Determining the predictors of nursing students' xenophobic tendency toward refugees.

BACKGROUND: Xenophobia is an important role in affecting the professional development of nursing students and the health of refugees. However, factors contributing to xenophobia levels in nursing students remain undetermined. AIM: To determine the predictors and levels of xenophobia in nursing students toward refugees. METHOD: Our cross-sectional descriptive study included nursing students (n = 265) from Turkey. Data were collected using the "Participant Information Form", "Xenophobia Scale", "Ethnocentrism Scale", and "Intergroup Social Contact Scale". Structural equation modeling and regression analysis were used for data analysis. RESULTS: 86.0 % of the participants were female and students' xenophobia scale mean score was 50.89 (SD = 9.59) at a high level. Nursing students living in the city center showed a higher level of xenophobia than those living in the village/town (ß = 3.327). Nursing students with an immigrant family member displayed a lower level of xenophobia than those who did not (ß = 3.461). Both ethnocentrism and intergroup social contact exerted a direct effect on xenophobia. Ethnocentrism (ß = 0.193, p < 0.001) was found to be a positive predictor of xenophobia levels in students. Intergroup social contact (ß = -0.400, p < 0.001) was found to be a negative predictor of xenophobic levels in students. CONCLUSION: This study showed that ethnocentrism and intergroup social contact exerted direct effects on the xenophobic levels in nursing students. Our study also revealed that living in the city center and having an immigrant family member affected the level of xenophobia in such a sample.

Anti-Asian Xenophobia, Hate Crime Victimization, and Fear of Victimization During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

While the World Health Organization advised against referring to COVID-19 using racial overtones, as the COVID-19 pandemic spread, many disparagingly called it the "Wuhan virus," the "Chinese virus," and other terms. In this context, the FBI warned police agencies about an expected increase in anti-Asian hate crimes during the early months of the pandemic. But, while some researchers and media outlets discussed these potential increases at length, very few studies have been able to directly assess the nature of anti-Asian hate and bias victimization during the pandemic. Following this, the current study directly examines variation in anti-Asian bias and victimization in the United States during the COVID-19 pandemic. Specifically, this research presents results from two studies using a survey of 3,163 non-Asian and 575 Asian American and Pacific Islander respondents, respectively. The first study examines the prevalence of anti-Asian xenophobia among the non-Asian sample and assesses differences in these prejudicial attitudes across respondent characteristics, while the second study examines variation in experiences with bias during the pandemic among the Asian sample. The results illustrate the ubiquity of anti-Asian sentiment, suggesting that those who indicate greater fear of the pandemic report more prejudicial attitudes, as well as important racial differences in these patterns. The results also demonstrate the extent to which the pandemic has impacted individual experiences with anti-Asian bias victimization, such that more than one-third of Asian respondents report bias victimization during the pandemic, and more than half of Asian respondents report that they know someone who has been victimized. These patterns have important implications for addressing COVID-19-related hate crime moving forward.

Racism, xenophobia, discrimination, and the determination of health.

This Series shows how racism, xenophobia, discrimination, and the structures that support them are detrimental to health. In this first Series paper, we describe the conceptual model used throughout the Series and the underlying principles and definitions. We explore concepts of epistemic injustice, biological experimentation, and misconceptions about race using a historical lens. We focus on the core structural factors of separation and hierarchical power that permeate society and result in the negative health consequences we see. We are at a crucial moment in history, as populist leaders pushing the politics of hate have become more powerful in several countries. These leaders exploit racism, xenophobia, and other forms of discrimination to divide and control populations, with immediate and long-term consequences for both individual and population health. The COVID-19 pandemic and transnational racial justice movements have brought renewed attention to persisting structural racial injustice.

Racism, xenophobia, and discrimination: mapping pathways to health outcomes.

Despite being globally pervasive, racism, xenophobia, and discrimination are not universally recognised determinants of health. We challenge widespread beliefs related to the inevitability of increased mortality and morbidity associated with particular ethnicities and minoritised groups. In refuting that racial categories have a genetic basis and acknowledging that socioeconomic factors offer incomplete explanations in understanding these health disparities, we examine the pathways by which discrimination based on caste, ethnicity, Indigeneity, migratory status, race, religion, and skin colour affect health. Discrimination based on these categories, although having many unique historical and cultural contexts, operates in the same way, with overlapping pathways and health effects. We synthesise how such discrimination affects health systems, spatial determination, and communities, and how these processes manifest at the individual level, across the life course, and intergenerationally. We explore how individuals respond to and internalise these complex mechanisms psychologically, behaviourally, and physiologically. The evidence shows that racism, xenophobia, and discrimination affect a range of health outcomes across all ages around the world, and remain embedded within the universal challenges we face, from COVID-19 to the climate emergency.

Confronting the consequences of racism, xenophobia, and discrimination on health and health-care systems.

Racism, xenophobia, and discrimination are key determinants of health and equity and must be addressed for improved health outcomes. We conclude that far broader, deeper, transformative action is needed compared with current measures to tackle adverse effects of racism on health. To challenge the structural drivers of racism and xenophobia, anti-racist action and other wider measures that target determinants should implement an intersectional approach to effectively address the causes and consequences of racism within a population. Structurally, legal instruments and human rights law provide a robust framework to challenge the pervasive drivers of disadvantage linked to caste, ethnicity, Indigeneity, migratory status, race, religion, and skin colour. Actions need to consider the historical, economic, and political contexts in which the effects of racism, xenophobia, and discrimination affect health. We propose several specific actions: a commission that explores how we action the approaches laid out in this paper; building a conversation and a series of events with international multilateral agency stakeholders to raise the issue and profile of racism, xenophobia, and discrimination within health; and using our multiple platforms to build coalitions, expand knowledge, highlight inequities, and advocate for change across the world.

The negative impact of xenophobia on compassion with suffering out-group members is attenuated by trait empathy.

Empathy enables human beings to understand and share the internal states of others. Studies show that empathy for pain is higher for in-group compared to out-group members. This might be driven by attitudes and biases towards out-groups. In a between subject design, N = 621 participants filled in questionnaires measuring xenophobia and trait empathy and were presented with photos of suffering individuals either from the in-group or an out-group, which had to be rated with respect to negative affect and the willingness to help the depicted persons. Results do not show more compassion with members of the in-group in general, but a negative effect of xenophobia on state empathy in the out-group condition. Additional moderation analyses show that this effect is less evident in presence of high trait empathy scores. Our results highlight the importance of empathy trainings to attenuate the effects of xenophobic attitudes on social cohabitation in our increasingly polarized and culturally diverse societies.

Xenophobia and discrimination: Consequences for latinx immigrants and pathways to restoration & healing.

The United States is often conceptualized as a country of immigrants, with an origin story of multicultural, multilingual, diverse foreign-born populations coming together to create the fabric of the nation. This narrative emerges through many domains of American society, frequently depicting an image of opportunity for all. Yet historically and contemporarily, immigration has been racialized and wrought with oppressive practices and policies. Research has shown that white Americans tend to define "American" as synonymous with "white" and subsequently perceive those who appear phenotypically not white (e.g., darker skin tones) as "less American." This phenomenon is reflected in immigration policy and lived experiences of minoritized immigrants. Vast theoretical and empirical literature documents the deleterious consequences of discrimination across domains of physical (e.g., hypertension, compromised immune functioning) and psychological health (e.g., ethno-racial trauma, depression). While it is critical to highlight the harmful effects of racism and xenophobia on immigrant well-being, the intent of this article is to also explore how indigenous, restorative healing practices may help communities and individuals heal from xenophobia and discrimination. Thus, the aim of this piece is twofold; (1) briefly discuss and contextualize the systems of oppression impacting immigrants, specifically Latinx communities in the United States, and (2) provide a framework for restoration and radical healing for Latinx immigrants.

Does COVID-19 threat increase xenophobia? The roles of protection efficacy and support seeking.

BACKGROUND: In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, people in many countries have shown xenophobia toward China, where the pandemic began. Within China, xenophobia has also been observed toward the people of Wuhan, the city where the first cases were identified. The relationship between disease threat and xenophobia is well established, but the reasons for this relationship are unclear. This study investigated the mediation role of perceived protection efficacy and moderation role of support seeking in the relationship between perceived COVID-19 risk and xenophobia within China. METHODS: An online survey was administered to a nationally representative sample (N = 1103; 51.7% women; ages 18 to 88) of Chinese adults during the early stage of the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants completed questionnaires about their perceived COVID-19 risk, perceived protection efficacy in reducing risk, support seeking, and xenophobic attitudes toward people of the Wuhan area. RESULTS: Regression based analyses showed that the perceived COVID-19 risk positively predicted xenophobia. Low perceived protection efficacy partly mediated the relationship between perceived COVID-19 risk and xenophobic attitudes, and this indirect effect was moderated by support seeking. Specifically, the indirect effect was weaker among individuals who sought more social support. CONCLUSIONS: Under disease threat, xenophobia can appear within a country that otherwise seems culturally homogeneous. This study extends the extant research by identifying a possible psychological mechanism by which individuals' perception of disease threat elicits xenophobia, and by addressing the question of why this response is stronger among some people than others. Increasing the public's perceived efficacy in protecting themselves from infection, and encouraging support seeking, could reduce xenophobic attitudes.

Psychology and the Threat of Contagion: Feeling Vulnerable to a Disease Moderates the Link Between Xenophobic Thoughts and Support for Ingroup-Protective Actions.

The widespread threat of contagious disease disrupts not only everyday life but also psychological experience. Building on findings regarding xenophobic responses to contagious diseases, this research investigates how perceived vulnerability to a disease moderates the psychological link between people's xenophobic thoughts and support for ingroup-protective actions. Three datasets collected during the time of Ebola (N = 867) and COVID-19 (Ns = 992 and 926) measured perceived disease risk, group-serving biases (i.e., xenophobic thoughts), and support for restrictive travel policies (i.e., ingroup-protective actions). Using correlational and quasi-experimental analyses, results indicated that for people who perceive greater disease risk, the association between group-serving bias and restrictive policy support is weakened. This weakened association occurred because people who felt more vulnerable to these diseases increased support for ingroup-protective actions more strongly than xenophobic thoughts. This research underscores the importance of understanding the impact of threats on psychological processes beyond the impact on psychological outcomes.

Narratives of experiences of violence of Venezuelan migrant women sheltered at the northwestern Brazilian border.

OBJECTIVES: To know the experiences of Venezuelan migrant women living in shelters in Roraima state at the northwestern border between Venezuela and Brazil regarding situations of violence as part of the dynamics of everyday life. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Data were collected in January 2020 through 12 focus group discussions (FGDs) with 5 to 14 Venezuelan migrant women aged 18-49 years old living transitorily in five shelters established by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the Brazilian government. We obtained individual and shared views on the experiences regarding violence that migrant women may experience in their everyday life. To organize the FGDs, variations in age and the time women were living at the shelters were considered. All FGDs were held in a place at the shelter that guaranteed privacy and secrecy so that women could express themselves freely. The initial question was broad and open ended and was followed by more specific questions about situations of domestic violence and other types of violence. RESULTS: The main themes identified were the following: i) women's perceptions on domestic violence, ii) women's perceptions on how humanitarian organizations were managing the episodes of domestic violence, and iii) situations considered violence in everyday life at the shelters. The FGDs showed that the reported violence inside the shelters was high, and several forms of violence emerged. Violence was identified as physical aggression and psychological threats, and violence in everyday life at the shelter included xenophobia when the migrants went outside the shelters that was perceived and described as violence. CONCLUSIONS: According to the perspective of Venezuelan migrant women violence was part of everyday life among those living in the UNHCR shelters at the northwestern border of Brazil-Venezuela. These women are not comfortable with this situation, and it is difficult for them to understand and handle the episodes of violence.

Discrimination experienced by Asian Canadian and Asian American health care workers during the COVID-19 pandemic: a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Asian Canadians and Asian Americans face COVID-19-related discrimination. The objective of this qualitative study was to explore the experiences of Asian health care workers dealing with discrimination, with a focus on racial micro-agressions, in Canada and the United States during the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: We adopted a qualitative descriptive approach. We used convenience and snowball sampling strategies to recruit participants. We conducted individual, in-depth semistructured interviews with Asian health care workers in Canada and the US via videoconferencing between May and September 2020. Eligible participants had to self-identify as Asian and be currently employed as a health care worker with at least 1 year of full-time employment. We used an inductive thematic approach to analyze the data. RESULTS: Thirty participants were recruited. Fifteen (50%) were Canadians and 15 (50%) were Americans; there were 18 women (60%), 11 men (37%) and 1 nonbinary person. Most of the participants were aged 25-29 years (n = 16, 53%). More than half were nurses (n = 16, 53%); the other participants were attending physicians (n = 5), physiotherapists (n = 3), resident physicians (n = 2), a midwife, a paramedic, a pharmacist and a physician assistant. Two themes emerged from the data: a surge of racial microaggressions related to COVID-19 and a lack of institutional and public acknowledgement. Participants noted that they have experienced an increase in racial microaggressions during the COVID-19 pandemic. They have also experienced threats of violence and actual violence. The largely silent organizational response to the challenges being faced by people of Asian descent and the use of disparaging terms such as "China virus" in the early stages of the pandemic were a substantial source of frustration. INTERPRETATION: Asian health care workers have experienced challenges in dealing with racial microaggressions related to COVID-19 in the US and Canada. More research should be done on the experiences of Asian Americans and Asian Canadians, both during and after the pandemic, and supportive measures should be put in place to protect Asian health care workers.

The relationship between intercultural effectiveness and intercultural awareness and xenophobia among undergraduate nursing and vocational schools of health services students: A descriptive study.

BACKGROUND: Students who will become health professionals should be educated according to universal standards of providing foreign patients with culturally satisfying health care, free from discrimination. AIM: This study aims to identify the relationship of intercultural effectiveness and awareness with xenophobia in undergraduate nursing students and vocational schools of health services students. METHOD: This descriptive study was conducted with undergraduate nursing students (N= 257) and vocational schools of health services students (N = 341) in a region with a high refugee population in Turkey. Data were collected through the "Intercultural Awareness Scale," the "Intercultural Effectiveness Scale," and the "Xenophobia Scale." RESULTS: Of all the participants, 70.1% were females, and the mean age was 20.70 ± 2.64 years; 57% of the students were from the vocational school students, and 43% from the undergraduate nursing program. Female students had significantly higher scores in intercultural effectiveness, behavioral flexibility, xenophobia (p = 0.036, p = 0.041, p = 0.001, respectively), interaction relaxation and interactant respect (p < 0.001, p < 0.001), while male students had significantly higher intercultural awareness (p < 0.001). The median intercultural effectiveness score of the students living in the rural area was low (p = 0.044), and the median xenophobia score of the students who lived abroad was significantly lower (p = 0.032). There was a negative correlation between the Intercultural Effectiveness Scale total and Intercultural Awareness and Xenophobia Scale total mean scores (r = -0.085, r = 0.182), and there was a weak, positive correlation between the Intercultural Awareness Scale total mean scores and the Xenophobia Scale mean scores (r = 0.113). CONCLUSION: Intercultural sensitivity is considered to be improved by including course content in the curriculum to improve students' intercultural effectiveness and awareness levels and decrease their xenophobic prejudices.