[Ivan Pavlov (1849-1935): His life and conditional reflexes story revisited]. / Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) : l'histoire revisitée de sa vie et des réflexes conditionnels.

Historiography of IP Pavlov and his description of conditional reflexes has been thoroughly specified by the records collected between 1990-2000 by DP Todes, an American science historian specializing in Russia. The Pavlov's intent was to study the nervous processes underlying psychical activity by the conditional reflexes, not the conditioning theory. In his modeling of the higher nervous activity, he highlighted the dynamic and greatly plastic character of brain functioning as well as the functional character of some long-term behavioral disorders in dogs. Far from the Soviet dogmatic presentation of the "Pavlovian doctrine", the complexity of the Pavlov's thought also paved the way to innovative conceptions in opposition with his former modeling developed by Soviet physiologists such as NA Bernstein and PK Anokhin, and psychologists such as LS Vygotski and AR Luria.

[A neurofunctional model of consciousness: its neurophysiological and cognitive bases]. / Modelo neurofuncional de la conciencia: bases neurofisiologicas y cognitivas.

Interest in the causal relation between consciousness and the underlying neuronal activity has grown in recent decades. Numerous experimental studies have been carried out on the brain structures and networks underlying consciousness in animal models, in patients with brain damage and with very precise functional neuroimaging. In spite of the great multitude of findings, there is no theoretical proposal that integrates this knowledge under a coherent theoretical framework based on the evidence obtained. Existing theories offer a dismembered view of consciousness, since they pose causal explanations that do not include a global functional perspective of the interaction of the different brain networks involved in consciousness. This work offers a theoretical framework that integrates the empirical knowledge, generated in recent decades, into a neurofunctional model of consciousness. This model represents consciousness as an epiphenomenon resulting from the sequential activation of different neural loops that are formed by specific brain structures and networks which receive feedback from their own operations in order to reconfigure their own functional states and the entire system. The ascending reticular activating system, the thalamocortical networks and the cortico-cortical networks sustain cognitive processes that are differentiated, although highly dependent and fundamental for the final experience of consciousness. All these systems form a single physiological space where the individual can deploy different cognitive skills that allow the emergence of complex behaviours such as language, thought and social cognition.

TITLE: Modelo neurofuncional de la conciencia: bases neurofisiologicas y cognitivas.El interes por la relacion causal existente entre la conciencia y la actividad neuronal subyacente ha aumentado en las ultimas decadas. Se han llevado a cabo numerosos estudios experimentales en modelos animales, en pacientes con daño cerebral y con neuroimagen funcional con una excelente precision sobre las estructuras y redes cerebrales que subyacen a la conciencia. A pesar de la gran multitud de hallazgos, no existe una propuesta teorica que integre este conocimiento bajo un marco teorico coherente basado en las evidencias obtenidas. Las teorias existentes ofrecen una vision desmembrada de la conciencia, ya que plantean explicaciones causales que no incluyen una perspectiva funcional global sobre la interaccion del conjunto de redes cerebrales involucradas en la conciencia. Este trabajo ofrece un marco teorico que integra el conocimiento empirico, generado en las ultimas decadas, en un modelo neurofuncional de la conciencia. Este modelo representa la conciencia como un epifenomeno resultante de la activacion secuencial de diferentes bucles neuronales que estan formados por estructuras y redes cerebrales especificas retroalimentadas por sus propias operaciones para poder reconfigurar sus propios estados funcionales y todo el sistema. El sistema reticular activador ascendente, las redes talamocorticales y las redes corticocorticales sostienen procesos cognitivos diferenciados, aunque altamente dependientes y basicos para la experiencia final de conciencia. Todos estos sistemas forman un unico espacio fisiologico en donde el individuo puede desplegar diferentes habilidades cognitivas que permiten la emergencia de conductas complejas como el lenguaje, el pensamiento y la cognicion social.

[Executive neurofunctionality: a comparative study in high intellectual abilities]. / Neurofuncionalidad ejecutiva: estudio comparativo en las altas capacidades.

INTRODUCTION: From a differential perspective, high intellectual ability is an expression of intellectual functioning with characteristic functional correlates and structural correlates of the underlying neural activity that suggests an improved executive capacity as a relevant characteristic, highlighting in it a more effective working memory. DEVELOPMENT: The neuroscientific evidences about the neural mechanisms that can explain the differences are analyzed between the intellectual functioning of the high intellectual ability and the typical intellectual capacity. The possibilities that offer the recording of evoked potentials to capture fundamental mental processes that allow explain the differences between them are put under review. CONCLUSIONS: Neuroscientific evidences through electroencephalography or other mental imagery techniques show that the brain, as a structural correlate of high intellectual abilities, has greater neural efficiency, interconnectivity and differences in the cytoarchitecture. It is a brain that captures, understands and interprets reality in a qualitatively different manner. But the neural differences are structural and the high intellectual capacity emerges from its plasticity functional. That is, it is a brain prepared for better executive regulation that is not always directly related with excellence and the eminent manifestation of its potentiality because it requires other conditioning factors such as motivation, the organization of knowledge, personal traits of temperament or perfectionism, and exogenous conditions.

TITLE: Neurofuncionalidad ejecutiva: estudio comparativo en las altas capacidades.Introduccion. Desde una perspectiva diferencial, la alta capacidad intelectual es una expresion del funcionamiento intelectual con unos correlatos funcionales caracteristicos y unos correlatos estructurales de la actividad neural subyacente que sugieren una capacidad ejecutiva mejorada como caracteristica relevante, destacando en ella una memoria de trabajo mas eficaz. Desarrollo. Se analizan las evidencias neurocientificas sobre los mecanismos neurales que pueden explicar las diferencias entre el funcionamiento intelectual de la alta capacidad intelectual y la capacidad intelectual tipica, y se revisan las posibilidades que ofrece el registro de potenciales evocados para apresar procesos mentales fundamentales que permitan explicar las diferencias entre ellas. Conclusiones. Las evidencias neurocientificas mediante electroencefalografia u otras tecnicas de imagineria mental muestran que el cerebro, como correlato estructural de la alta capacidad intelectual, tiene mayor eficiencia neural, interconectividad y diferencias en la citoarquitectura. Es un cerebro que captura, comprende e interpreta la realidad de forma cualitativamente diferente. Pero las diferencias neurales son estructurales y la alta capacidad intelectual emerge de su plasticidad funcional. Es decir, es un cerebro preparado para una mejor regulacion ejecutiva que no siempre guarda relacion directa con la excelencia y la eminente manifestacion de su potencialidad porque precisa de otros condicionantes como la motivacion, la organizacion del conocimiento, rasgos personales de temperamento o perfeccionismo, y condicionantes exogenos.

Physiology of Astroglia.

Astrocytes are neural cells of ectodermal, neuroepithelial origin that provide for homeostasis and defense of the central nervous system (CNS). Astrocytes are highly heterogeneous in morphological appearance; they express a multitude of receptors, channels, and membrane transporters. This complement underlies their remarkable adaptive plasticity that defines the functional maintenance of the CNS in development and aging. Astrocytes are tightly integrated into neural networks and act within the context of neural tissue; astrocytes control homeostasis of the CNS at all levels of organization from molecular to the whole organ.

Performance of a Brazilian sample on the Portuguese translation of the BNI Screen for Higher Cerebral Functions.

INTRODUCTION: The Barrow Neurological Institute (BNI) Screen for Higher Cerebral Functions (BNIS) has been translated into several languages and found useful in evaluating multiple domains of cognitive and affective dysfunction, particularly in neuro-rehabilitation settings. Normative data from countries with high literacy rates have reported strikingly similar mean level of performance scores on this test, with age typically correlating higher with total score performance than education. In the present study, we obtain convenience sample normative data from a native Brazilian population on a Portuguese translation of the BNIS (i.e., BNIS-PT). METHOD: The BNIS was translated into Portuguese by two native speaking Portuguese neuropsychologists who were also fluent in English. It was then administered to 201 normally functioning native Brazilian individuals who varied considerably in age and formal educational training. RESULTS: The mean BNIS total score was similar to what previous studies reported, but primarily in younger adults with at least 12 years of formal education. In this Brazilian sample, the correlation of educational level and BNIS total score was r = .68, p < .001. The correlation of age and BNIS total score was r = -.36, p < .001. This is the opposite pattern to that observed in previous standardization studies. The strong correlation of education with performance in various subtests was observed in all age groups (ages ranging from 15 to 85 years). CONCLUSION: This standardization study provides guidelines for calculating expected average performance levels on the BNIS-PT for Brazilian individuals with varying degrees of age and education. Educational level positively correlated with test performance on the BNIS-PT and was repeatedly observed to overshadow the effects of age, suggesting its important role in the development of higher cerebral functions in multiple domains in a Brazilian sample of normally functioning individuals.

Higher order balance control: Distinct effects between cognitive task and manual steadiness constraint on automatic postural responses.

In the present experiment, we aimed to evaluate the interactive effect of performing a cognitive task simultaneously with a manual task requiring either high or low steadiness on APRs. Young volunteers performed the task of recovering upright balance following a mechanical perturbation provoked by unanticipatedly releasing a load pulling the participant's body backwards. The postural task was performed while holding a cylinder steadily on a tray. One group performed that task under high (cylinder' round side down) and another one under low (cylinder' flat side down) manual steadiness constraint. Those tasks were evaluated in the conditions of performing concurrently a cognitive numeric subtraction task and under no cognitive task. Analysis showed that performance of the cognitive task led to increased body and tray displacement, associated with higher displacement at the hip and upper trunk, and lower magnitude of activation of the GM muscle in response to the perturbation. Conversely, high manual steadiness constraint led to reduced tray velocity in association with lower values of trunk displacement, and decreased rotation amplitude at the ankle and hip joints. We found no interactions between the effects of the cognitive and manual tasks on APRs, suggesting that they were processed in parallel in the generation of responses for balance recovery. Modulation of postural responses from the manual and cognitive tasks indicates participation of higher order neural structures in the generation of APRs, with postural responses being affected by multiple mental processes occurring in parallel.

[Unusual Migraine Manifestations]. / Ungewöhnliche Migränemanifestationen.

Migraine is a complex neurologic disorder by which several systems of the central nervous system (autonomous system, affective, cognitive, sensoric and motoric system) may be affected on different levels. Around a fourth of the patients have migraine aura. The most common aura is the visual aura, followed by sensoric aura. But motoric deficits as well as deficits of higher cortical centers (disorders of thinking, orientation, coherence or concentration) may occur as well. In analogy with a headache calendar, an aura calendar can deliver important help in the diagnostic process of rare migraine manifestations and prevent underdiagnosis of unusual migraine manifestations. Complex migraine manifestations are diagnoses of exlusion, and a broad diagnostic work-up is warranted in order to exclude dangerous neurologic pathologies. There are no specific therapeutic recommendations, as there is a lack of randomized controlled studies.

Biological Motion Perception, Brain Responses, and Schizotypal Personality Disorder.

IMPORTANCE: Exploration of the ability to process socially relevant events portrayed by biological motion and to identify underlying neuronal processes can provide clues for understanding the pathophysiology of psychosis. Individuals with schizotypal personality disorder (SPD) have pervasive interpersonal deficits and odd behaviors. An understanding of the neural mechanisms involved in the perception of biological motion and the relation of activity to clinical symptoms in those mechanisms is needed. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the specificity of brain regions responsive to biological motion perception in individuals with SPD compared with healthy control individuals. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Twenty-one patients diagnosed as having SPD and 38 age-, sex-, and IQ-matched controls underwent event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging. The SPD group completed the Scale for the Assessment of Positive Symptoms, the Scale for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms, and the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire for assessment of symptom severity. During scanning, all participants were required to discriminate biological from scrambled sequences of point-light animations. Data were collected from September 21. 2011, to July 13, 2013, and analyzed from March to May 2015. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: Blood oxygenation level-dependent signals during event-related scanning and symptom severity in the SPD group. RESULTS: The 21 individuals with SPD (16 men and 5 women) and 38 controls (29 men and 9 women) had a mean (SD) age, 22.8 (3.8) vs 22.2 (2.5) years and a mean (SD) IQ, 115.00 (12.55) vs 120.24 )7.68). Brain imaging revealed the presence of neuronal activation specific to biological motion within the posterior superior temporal sulcus. However, the individuals with SPD exhibited regions of neural responsiveness within brain regions forming the reward network, which consisted of the dorsal striatum and bilateral superior medial frontal cortex (all t ≥ 2.99, P of clusters <.002). The individuals with SPD also exhibited reduced activation in the anterior and middle cingulate cortices and the lingual and superior occipital gyri, which are brain areas responsive to biological motion perception and executive control of perception (all t ≥ 3.29, P of clusters <.001). In addition, significant correlations between the hyperdopaminergic clinical symptoms and enhanced neuronal activation in the caudate nucleus and frontal cortex were observed in the SPD group (all r ≥ 0.52, P < .02). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Individuals with SPD display heightened activation in the neural circuitry involved in reward and decision making when viewing biological motion stimuli in addition to a positive correlation between increased blood oxygenation level-dependent signal responses related to biological motions and clinical symptoms. These findings suggest that enhanced responses arise within the reward network in individuals with SPD and are possibly related to the peculiar ways that individuals with SPD behave in social contexts.

[Good general cognitive skills on irony understanding in schizophrenia - an fMRi study]. / Jó általános kognitív készségek hatása az irónia megértesére szkizofréniában. Funkcionális MRI vizsgálat.

In this study we have examined a group of schizophrenia patients during the understanding of irony tasks, who had normal IQ. 14 patients and 14 healthy control subjects were included, 15 irony and 15 control tasks were invertigated during an fMRI investigation. During the contextual phase patients had shown a higher activitation in different brain regions. The healthy controls had shown deactivitation during this phase, while this couldn't be seen in the patiens group. During the irony phase healthy subjects activated brain regions known as mentalisation areas, while patients didn't. Our results can support the view, that behind schizophrenia patients mentalisation deficit the contextual phase can play the central role.

[Relations among higher brain function, trust, and gullibility in middle-aged and elderly people].

In this study, we examined the relationships among higher brain function, trust or distrust, and gullibility in middle-aged and elderly people. It has been pointed out that the trust can be regarded the psychological frame of automatic processing in decision-makinig. The participants were 309 rural community dwellers (127-males and 182 females) whose mean age was 64.9 years old (SD = 9.9). The trust scale of Amagai (1997) and the Nagoya University Cognitive Assessment Battery were used to measure sense of trust and higher brain function, respectively. Gullibility was measured by self-report using two items. Correlation analyses showed that higher brain function positively correlated with degree of trust in others and negatively correlated with distrust. However, regression analysis demonstrated that only the relationship between category fluency and distrust was significant. Furthermore, the degree of distrust positively correlated with gullibility.

[Correlations of consciousness and the default function of the brain]. / A tudat és az agy alapmuködési hálózatának a kapcsolata.

Neural correlation with consciousness represents a main topic of neuroscience studies. New results of consciousness researches proved that based on a coherent function in between its components the default mode network activity is the condition for awake consciousness. The subject of consciousness is self. Tasks related with the self were proving a high default mode network activity. Using connections inside the network, results which were related with self, could be considered to represent a polymodal integration system are they are participating in fine processing of the highly integrated associative information. It could be a result of the convergence of cognitive binding. There is a strong connection between the level of consciousness and praecuneal activation. It was proved that the network activity is changing during sleeping (normal condition), trauma or under drug induced altered consciousness. The default network activity can be considered as the neural correlate of consciousness. Further researches are warranted to answer the question: is the activity of the network the cause or is just accompanying the development of human consciousness?

A systematic review of the complex organization of human cognitive domains and their heritability.

BACKGROUND: Models of cognition propose a hierarchical structure for human cognitive processes, in which the sequences of human action are organized into parts or subunits of analysis that can be grouped into progressively more complex, inclusive higher-order functions. This organizational structure from partial to whole may be reflected in the neural representations that underlie human behaviour, and in its genetic underpinnings. The objective of the present study was to explore a putative hierarchical organization of the genetic influences underlying cognitive domains. METHOD: Thirty four studies of the heritability of cognition on population-based samples were reviewed, which included measures of intelligence, verbal and performance abilities, memory, working memory and processing speed. RESULTS: Specific cognitive domains showed diverse proportions of genetic underpinnings such that higher-order cognitive functions present high heritability estimates, whereas lower-order functions respond to small/moderate heritability estimates. CONCLUSIONS: Based on current understanding of the developmental processes of the neurobiological substrates of human cognition, the genetic contributions to cognitive abilities seem to be organized in line with the ontogenic maturation of the brain. We discuss the large genetic control of the combinatory capacity of basic cognitive functions, and its interaction with environmental influences.

[Localization in neuropsychology].

Cognitive impairment is a part of neurological findings. Localization of each cognitive function, however, is not as straightforward as motor or sensory functions. Individual differences in premorbid abilities and functional network, in addition to the hierarchical organization of cognitive functions, make functional localization highly complicated. Brain-behavior relationships have been studied in patients with focal lesions, such as cerebrovascular diseases or brain tumor. Nowadays, distribution of brain atrophy in relation to cognitive performance is also investigated in neurodegenerative disorders using various neuroimaging techniques. Neurologists can take the pathological processes in each disease into account when they explore the distribution of impaired neural networks. Integrating sophisticated lesion analysis with deficit analysis based on knowledge of normal cognitive function would clarify brain-behavior relationships.

Cognitive complaints after breast cancer treatments: examining the relationship with neuropsychological test performance.

BACKGROUND: Cognitive complaints are reported frequently after breast cancer treatments. Their association with neuropsychological (NP) test performance is not well-established. METHODS: Early-stage, posttreatment breast cancer patients were enrolled in a prospective, longitudinal, cohort study prior to starting endocrine therapy. Evaluation included an NP test battery and self-report questionnaires assessing symptoms, including cognitive complaints. Multivariable regression models assessed associations among cognitive complaints, mood, treatment exposures, and NP test performance. RESULTS: One hundred eighty-nine breast cancer patients, aged 21-65 years, completed the evaluation; 23.3% endorsed higher memory complaints and 19.0% reported higher executive function complaints (>1 SD above the mean for healthy control sample). Regression modeling demonstrated a statistically significant association of higher memory complaints with combined chemotherapy and radiation treatments (P = .01), poorer NP verbal memory performance (P = .02), and higher depressive symptoms (P < .001), controlling for age and IQ. For executive functioning complaints, multivariable modeling controlling for age, IQ, and other confounds demonstrated statistically significant associations with better NP visual memory performance (P = .03) and higher depressive symptoms (P < .001), whereas combined chemotherapy and radiation treatment (P = .05) approached statistical significance. CONCLUSIONS: About one in five post-adjuvant treatment breast cancer patients had elevated memory and/or executive function complaints that were statistically significantly associated with domain-specific NP test performances and depressive symptoms; combined chemotherapy and radiation treatment was also statistically significantly associated with memory complaints. These results and other emerging studies suggest that subjective cognitive complaints in part reflect objective NP performance, although their etiology and biology appear to be multifactorial, motivating further transdisciplinary research.