Does Hazardous-Waste Testing Follow Technical Guidance, Thus Help Protect Environmental Justice and Health?

Does representative hazardous-waste-site testing tend to follow or to violate government technical guidance? This is an important question, because following such guidance promotes reliable risk analysis, adequate remediation, and environmental-justice and -health protection. Yet only government documents typically address this question, usually only when it is too late, when citizens have already exhibited health harm, allegedly from living or working near current/former hazardous-waste sites. Because no systematic, representative, scientific analyses have answered the preceding question, this article begins to investigate it by posing a narrower part of the question: Does representative US testing of volatile-organic-compound (VOC) waste sites tend to follow or to violate government technical requirements? The article (i) outlines US/state-government technical guidance for VOC testing; (ii) develops criteria for discovering representative US cases of VOC testing; (iii) uses the dominant US Environmental Protection Agency method to assess whether these representative cases follow such guidance; (iv) employs the results of (iii) to begin to answer the preceding question; then (v) discusses the degree to which, if any, these results suggest threats to environmental health or justice. Our initial, but representative, results show that almost all US VOC-waste-site testing (that we investigated) violates government technical requirements and systematically underestimates risks, and this may help justify less expensive, potentially health-threatening cleanups, mostly in environmental justice communities. We outline needed future research and suggest two strategies to promote following government technical guidance for hazardous-waste testing.

Preparation and related properties of geopolymer solidified uranium tailings bodies with various fibers and fiber content.

Uranium tailing ponds are a potential major source of radioactive pollution. Solidification treatment can control the diffusion and migration of radioactive elements in uranium tailings to safeguard the surrounding ecological environment. A literature review and field investigation were conducted in this study prior to fabricating 11 solidified uranium tailing samples with different proportions of PVA fiber, basalt fiber, metakaolin, and fly ash, and the weight percentage of uranium tailings in the solidified body is 61.11%. The pore structure, volume resistivity, compressive strength, radon exhalation rate variations, and U(VI) leaching performance of the samples were analyzed. The pore size of the solidified samples is mainly between 1 and 50 nm, the pore volume is between 2.461 and 5.852 × 10-2 cm3/g, the volume resistivity is between 1020.00 and 1937.33 Ω·m, and the compressive strength is between 20.61 and 36.91 MPa. The radon exhalation rate is between 0.0397 and 0.0853 Bq·m-2·s-1. The cumulative leaching fraction of U(VI) is between 2.095 and 2.869 × 10-2 cm, and the uranium immobilization rate is between 83.46 and 85.97%. Based on a comprehensive analysis of the physical and mechanical properties, radon exhalation rates, and U(VI) leaching performance of the solidified samples, the basalt fiber is found to outperform PVA fiber overall. The solidification effect is optimal when 0.6% basalt fiber is added.

Data-Quality Assessment Signals Toxic-Site Safety Threats and Environmental Injustices.

Most hazardous-waste sites are located in urban areas populated by disproportionate numbers of children, minorities, and poor people who, as a result, face more severe pollution threats and environmental-health inequalities. Partly to address this harm, in 2017 the United Nations unanimously endorsed the New Urban Agenda, which includes redeveloping urban-infill-toxic-waste sites. However, no systematic, independent analyses assess the public-health adequacy of such hazardous-facility redevelopments. Our objective is to provide a preliminary data-quality assessment (PDQA) of urban-infill-toxic-site testing, conducted by private redevelopers, including whether it adequately addresses pollution threats. To this end, we used two qualitative, weight-of-evidence methods. Method 1 employs nine criteria to select assessments for PDQA and help control for confounders. To conduct PDQA, Method 2 uses three US Environmental Protection Agency standards-the temporal, geographical, and technological representativeness of sampling. Our Method 1 results reveal four current toxic-site assessments (by CBRE/Trammell Crow, the world's largest commercial developer); at all of these sites the main risk drivers are solvents, volatile organic compounds, including trichloroethylene. Our Method 2 results indicate that all four assessments violate most PDQA standards and systematically underestimate health risk. These results reveal environmental injustice, disproportionate health threats to children/minorities/poor people at all four sites. Although preliminary, our conclusion is that alleviating harm and environmental-health inequalities posed by urban-infill-toxic-site pollution may require improving both the testing/cleanup/redevelopment requirements of the New Urban Agenda and the regulatory oversight of assessment and remediation performed by private redevelopers.

The Impacts of Illegal Toxic Waste Dumping on Children's Health: A Review and Case Study from Pasir Gudang, Malaysia.

Poor management of hazardous waste can lead to environmental pollution, injuries, and adverse health risks. Children's exposure to hazardous waste may cause serious acute and chronic health problems due to their higher vulnerability to the toxic effects of chemicals. This study examines an incident of illegal chemical dumping in Pasir Gudang, Malaysia and its potential health impacts on children. The study introduced a risk assessment of possible health-related effects due to chemical contamination based on a real case scenario where quantification of the contamination was not feasible. A literature review and spatial analysis were used as research methods. On 6th March 2019, tons of hazardous waste were illegally disposed into Kim Kim River, Pasir Gudang, Malaysia. They were identified as benzene, acrolein, acrylonitrile, hydrogen chloride, methane, toluene, xylene, ethylbenzene, and d-limonene. As a result, 975 students in the vicinity developed signs and symptoms of respiratory disease due to the chemical poisoning. The findings of this study indicate that more effective policies and preventive actions are urgently needed to protect human health, especially children from improper hazardous waste management.

A systematic review of risk assessment tools for contaminated sites - Current perspectives and future prospects.

Health and safety hazards associated with the redevelopment of contaminated sites can be complex and pose considerable risks. A systematic literature review was conducted on risk assessment tools for contaminated sites. These tools have been identified from searching through leading academic databases and other professional sources. For each of the identified tools the relevant risk assessment stages, harm type, hazard category, receptor type and pathways are reported. Findings reveal that despite growing interest in the development of risk assessment tools, there are persistent knowledge gaps identified in this study, which serve as a basis for future research direction to where more advanced practical tools could be invented. For instance, it is evidenced there is a shortfall in practical tools available to contaminated site assessors conducting investigations at the preliminary risk assessment stage. Addressing this opening can benefit the planning process, coordinated between relevant stakeholders and, moreover, reduce uncertainty in the decision-making of contaminated site developers.

Willingness to Respond to Radiological Disasters Among First Responders in St. Louis, Missouri.

During radiological disasters, firefighters and emergency medical services personnel are expected to report to work and engage in response activities; however, prior research exploring willingness to respond to radiological disasters among first responders has considered only radiological terrorism scenarios and not nonterrorism radiological scenarios. The goal of this study was to compare willingness to respond to terrorism and nonterrorism radiological disaster scenarios among first responders in St. Louis, Missouri, and to explore determinants of willingness to respond. Firefighters and emergency medical services personnel were surveyed about their willingness to respond to a dirty bomb detonation (terrorism) and a radioactive landfill fire (nonterrorism). McNemar's tests were used to assess differences in individual willingness to respond between the 2 scenarios and differences if requested versus required to respond. Chi-square tests were used to identify significant individual predictors of willingness to respond. Multivariate logistic regressions were used to determine final models of willingness to respond for both scenarios. Willingness to respond was lower for the dirty bomb scenario than the landfill scenario if requested (68.4% vs 73.0%; P < .05). For both scenarios, willingness to respond was lower if requested versus required to respond (dirty bomb: 68.4% vs 85.2%, P < .001; landfill: 73.0% vs 87.3%, P < .001). Normative beliefs, perceived susceptibility, self-efficacy, and perceived barriers were significant predictors of willingness to respond in the final models. Willingness to respond among first responders differed significantly between terrorism and nonterrorism radiological disasters and if requested versus required to respond. Willingness to respond may be increased through interventions targeting significant attitudinal and belief predictors and by establishing organizational policies that define expectations of employee response during disasters.

Investigating the mycobiome of the Holcomb Creosote Superfund Site.

Even though many fungi are known to degrade a range of organic chemicals and may be advantageous for targeting hydrophobic chemicals with low bioavailability due to their ability to secrete extracellular enzymes, fungi are not commonly leveraged in the context of bioremediation. Here we sought to examine the fungal microbiome (mycobiome) at a model creosote polluted site to determine if fungi were prevalent under high PAH contamination conditions as well as to identify potential mycostimulation targets. Several significant positive associations were detected between OTUs and mid-to high-molecular weight PAHs. Several OTUs were closely related to taxa that have previously been identified in culture-based studies as PAH degraders. In particular, members belonging to the Ascomycota phylum were the most diverse at higher PAH concentrations suggesting this phylum may be promising biostimulation targets. There were nearly three times more positive correlations as compared to negative correlations, suggesting that creosote-tolerance is more common than creosote-sensitivity in the fungal community. Future work including shotgun metagenomic analysis would help confirm the presence of specific degradation genes. Overall this study suggests that mycobiome and bacterial microbiome analyses should be performed in parallel to devise the most optimal in situ biostimulation treatment strategies.

Implication of phytometabolites on metal tolerance of the pseudo-metallophyte -Rosmarinus officinalis- in a Mediterranean brownfield.

This study highlights the trace metal and metalloid (TMM) accumulation in Rosmarinus officinalis L. and its chemical responses when exposed to high levels of contamination. R. officinalis individuals growing along a gradient of mixed TMM soil pollution, resulting from past industrial activities, were analysed. Several plant secondary metabolites, known to be involved in plant tolerance to TMM or as a plant health indicator, were investigated. The levels of thiol compounds and phytochelatin precursors (cysteine and glutathione) in the shoots were measured in the laboratory, while a portable non-destructive instrument was used to determine the level of phenolic compounds and chlorophylls directly on site. The level of Pb, As, Sb and Zn contaminations within the soil and plants was also determined. The results highlighted a decrease of TMM translocation with increases of soil contamination. The concentration of TMM in the shoots followed the Mitscherlich equation and reached a plateau at 0.41, 7.9, 0.37, 51.3 mg kg-1 for As, Pb, Sb and Zn, respectively. In the shoots, the levels of thiols and phenols were correlated to concentrations of TMM. Glutathione seems to be the main thiol compounds involved in the tolerance to As, Pb and Sb. Phenols indices, using non-destructive measurements, may be considered as an easy way to establish a proxy to estimate the TMM contamination level of the R. officinalis shoots. The study highlights metabolic processes that contribute to the high potential of R. officinalis for phytostabilisation of TMM in contaminated areas in the Mediterranean.

Protecting Children from Toxic Waste: Data-Usability Evaluation Can Deter Flawed Cleanup.

Nearly 25 percent of US children live within 2 km of toxic-waste sites, most of which are in urban areas. They face higher rates of cancer than adults, partly because the dominant contaminants at most US hazardous-waste sites include genotoxic carcinogens, like trichloroethylene, that are much more harmful to children. The purpose of this article is to help protect the public, especially children, from these threats and to improve toxics-remediation by beginning to test our hypothesis: If site-remediation assessments fail data-usability evaluation (DUE), they likely compromise later cleanups and public health, especially children's health. To begin hypothesis-testing, we perform a focused DUE for an unremediated, Pasadena, California toxic site. Our DUE methods are (a) comparing project-specific, remediation-assessment data with the remediation-assessment conceptual site model (CSM), in order to identify data gaps, and (b) using data-gap directionality to assess possible determinate bias (whether reported toxics risks are lower/higher than true values). Our results reveal (1) major CSM data gaps, particularly regarding Pasadena-toxic-site risks to children; (2) determinate bias, namely, risk underestimation; thus (3) likely inadequate remediation. Our discussion shows that if these results are generalizable, requiring routine, independent, DUEs might deter flawed toxic-site assessment/cleanup and resulting health threats, especially to children.

DOSE ESTIMATION FOR CONTAMINATED SOIL STORAGE IN LIVING ENVIRONMENT.

After the Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant accident, most of radiocesium-contaminated soil generated from decontamination activities outside Fukushima prefecture has been stored at decontamination sites such as schools, parks and residential lands (storage at sites) according to the Decontamination Guidelines. However, additional exposure due to the present storage has not been evaluated. Moreover, entering storage sites, which is not restricted for storage at sites, was not considered in safety assessment conducted in the guidelines. To continue the storage and confirm the effectiveness, understanding of present possible exposures is important. In this study, we evaluated exposure doses for residents and users of storage sites based on the present situation. As a result, annual doses due to residence were 10-2 to 10-3 mSv y-1 and doses due to annual entries were of the order of 10-3 mSv y-1. Hence, we confirmed that the exposure due to present storage outside Fukushima is significantly <1 mSv y-1.

Using routine, independent, scientific-data audits as an early-warning for potentially fraudulent toxic-site cleanup: PCE, TCE, and other VOCs at the former Naval-Ordnance Test Station, Pasadena, California.

Two of the most prevalent Superfund-site contaminants are carcinogenic solvents PCE (perchloroethylene) and TCE (trichloroethylene). Because their cleanup is difficult and costly, remediators have repeatedly falsified site-cleanup data, as Tetra Tech apparently did recently in San Francisco. Especially for difficult-to-remediate toxins, this paper hypothesizes that scientific misrepresentations occur in toxic-site assessments, before remediation even begins. To begin to test this hypothesis, the paper (1) defines scientific-data audits (assessing whether published conclusions contradict source data), (2) performs a preliminary scientific-data audit of toxic-site assessments by consultants Ninyo and Moore for developer Trammell Crow. Trammel Crow wants to build 550 apartments on an unremediated Pasadena, California site - once a premier US Navy weapons-testing/development facility. The paper (3) examines four key Ninyo-and-Moore conclusions, that removing only localized metals-hotspots will (3.1) remediate TCE/PCE; (3.2) leave low levels of them; (3.3) clean the northern half of soil, making it usable for grading, and (3.4) ensure site residents have lifetime cancer risks no greater than 1 in 3,000. The paper (4) shows that source data contradict all four conclusions. After summarizing the benefits of routine, independent, scientific-data audits (RISDA), the paper (5) argues that, if these results are generalizable, RISDA might help prevent questionable toxic-site assessments, especially those of expensive-to-remediate toxins like PCE/TCE.

Spatial distribution and molecular speciation of copper in indigenous plants from contaminated mine sites: Implication for phytostabilization.

Contaminated mining sites require ecological restoration work, of which phytoremediation using appropriate plant species is an attractive option. Our present study is focused on one typical contaminated mine site with indigenous plant cover. The X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) analysis indicated that Cu (the major contaminant) was primarily associated with goethite (adsorbed fraction), with a small amount of Cu oxalate-like species (organic fraction) in mine affected soil. With growth of plant species like Miscanthus floridulus and Stenoloma chusanum, the Cu-oxalate like organic species in rhizosphere soil significantly increased, with corresponding decrease in Cu-goethite. In the root cross-section of Miscanthus floridulus, synchrotron-based micro-X-ray fluorescence (µ-XRF) microscopy and micro-XANES results indicated that most Cu was sequestered around the root surface/epidermis, primarily forming Cu alginate-like species as a Cu-tolerance mechanism. From the root epidermis to the cortex and vascular bundle, more Cu(I)-glutathione was observed, suggesting reductive detoxification ability of Cu(II) to Cu(I) during the transport of Cu in the root. The observation of Cu-histidine in root internal cell layers showed another Cu detoxification pathway based on coordinating amino ligands. Miscanthus floridulus showed ability to accumulate phosphorous and nitrogen nutrients in rhizosphere and may be an option for in situ phytostabilization of metals in contaminated mining area.

Phosphate rock solubilization and the potential for lead immobilization by a phosphate-solubilizing bacterium (Pseudomonas sp.).

Lead (Pb) pollution is getting more and more serious in phosphate mining wastelands recently. However, seldom studies focused on the bioremediation of Pb pollution in phosphate mining wastelands by phosphate-solubilizing bacterium (PSB). In this study, a PSB named LA with high Pb tolerance was isolated from a phosphate mining wasteland. Based on its cell morphology, physiology, and phylogenetic analysis, it was identified as Pseudomonas sp. Its capabilities to solubilize mid-low-grade phosphate rock (PR) and immobilize Pb were assessed in this study. It was found that LA could effectively solubilize PR on PKO culture medium and release soluble phosphate in the culture medium. PR solubilization and Pb immobilization were investigated at different initial Pb concentrations and pH levels. The results showed that soluble phosphate was highly effective in immobilizing Pb and that when the initial concentration of Pb2+ was 100 mg/L, the immobilization rate of Pb was enhanced. Further, the mechanisms underlying solubilization of PR and biomineralization of Pb ions in LA were evaluated by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction. The results showed that some functional groups on the PR surface and LA were altered, and LA could form hydroxyapatite and pyrophosphate with Pb ions.

Investigation of a hazardous uncontrolled dumpsite in an oxbow lake of the Nitra River for pollution potential: a case study.

This paper deals with the engineering-geological investigation of uncontrolled dumpsites that are abundant in post-communist countries. The sites may be redeveloped in an optimal manner by using the applied methodology of engineering-geological investigations. The research tool is a case study dealing with hazardous uncontrolled dumpsites chemically contaminated by various substances, particularly carcinogenic chromium. The dumpsite is located in the alluvial sediments of an oxbow lake of the Nitra River in the Slovak Republic. The hazard is seen in the fact that the alluvial sediments are permeable and thus the contamination may spread easily. At the same time, it is located near a river, which makes the hazard greater. Apart from the risk of contamination, another risk is related to the methane generated by the dumpsite and thus the risk of self-ignition. In order to identify the uncontrolled dumpsite body, the research was grounded in the different physical properties of the diverse geological environments. Quasi-homogenous blocks of the dumpsite body and its alluvial surroundings were well identified by using the combined three geophysical methods, namely dipole electromagnetic profiling (DEMP), electrical resistance tomography (ERT) and spontaneous polarization (SP). In order to eliminate the risk of contamination spread, redevelopment measures for the uncontrolled dumpsite in the form of sealing walls and surface sealing foil were proposed. A system of methane drainage boreholes was proposed to eliminate the risk of self-ignition. The methodology in this case study is well applicable for other uncontrolled dumpsites, which is an important outcome of the study.

The Environmental Protection Agency's Use of Community Involvement to Engage Communities at Superfund Sites.

The Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Superfund program was established to identify, assess and clean up the nation's worst hazardous waste sites to protect human health and the environment. Community involvement is an important part of the Superfund program for at least three reasons. First, involving communities in decision making at Superfund sites is a statutory requirement. Second, community involvement is important so that clean up decisions will support reuse in the surrounding community. Third, because even after cleanup many sites have residual contamination that warrants administrative and legal controls to protect health and the environment, community members should understand these controls to both help protect community members and any limitations on site reuse. Community feedback informs both proposed actions and local reuse decisions. While the EPA recognizes that the agency performs many activities that are helpful to support community involvement, there are areas in need of improvement and further research would be helpful for communities in the future.

Themes Across New Directions in Community Engagement.

The articles in this special issue on New Directions in Environmental Communication in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health present new research and perspectives on engaging communities impacted by Superfund sites-the hazardous waste sites that have been identified by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as needing cleanup. In particular, these articles focus on the community engagement cores (CECs) that work with affected communities as part the Superfund Research Program at the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS). The purpose of this closing article is to highlight important themes evident across the eight articles in the special issue. When considered together, the findings reveal important lessons learned about community engagement and environmental communication, but also reveal that much more remains to be known. Recommendations are made for how these teams can continue to practice, reflect on, and research community engagement in ways that build toward a better understanding and implementation of best practices.

Evaluating toxicity risk in sediments after remediation at a Superfund megasite using a Triad approach.

The Pine River downstream of the Velsicol Superfund site has been contaminated with various hydrophobic organic pollutants for more than 50 years. Remediation and sediment dredging near the site began in spring of 1999, and was completed in 2006. In 2011, the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality completed a baseline assessment report long-term monitoring plan for the Pine River. However, there has been limited assessment of the benthic community since this evaluation. The objective of this research was to evaluate the risk of Pine River sediment to aquatic macroinvertebrates downstream from the Superfund site after decades of degradation and dredging using the Triad approach. Three sites were selected downstream from the Superfund site, and an upstream reference site was used. At each site, macroinvertebrates surveys were conducted and sediments were collected for chemical analysis of DDT (1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis (4-chlorophenyl) ethane) and its degradation products and for laboratory toxicity testing for mortality and sublethal effects using Hyalella azteca and Chironomus dilutus. Sediment concentrations of DDT, DDD, and DDE were below levels expected to cause toxicity, and there was no observed toxicity in laboratory tests. Additionally, there were no statistically significant differences in richness, richness of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera (EPT) species, total EPT abundance, percent EPT, or percent dominant taxa between the reference site and the downstream sites. There was an observed decrease in abundance of macroinvertebrate taxa at all downstream sites and a shift in macroinvertebrate structure when comparing the reference with most impaired sites. Although the sites downstream of the Superfund site remain different than the upstream control, there are improvements in species composition and abundance. However, more research is needed to evaluate the potential effects on ecosystem function.

Applying community resilience theory to engagement with residents facing cumulative environmental exposure risks: lessons from Louisiana's industrial corridor.

The presence of legacy pollutants, on-going chemical manufacturing activities, and population shifts have introduced complex, cumulative exposure risks to residents of many highly industrialized communities. These "industrial corridors" present unique challenges to environmental health science professionals, public and private sector decision makers, and residents seeking to make their communities safer and healthier. Social-ecological resilience theory offers a useful framework for the design and implementation of community engagement efforts to help stakeholders take action to reduce their exposure risks. A resilience framework views the human community as a coupled social-ecological system, wherein disturbances to the equilibrium of the system - acute and/or chronic - are common rather than rare events. It recognizes three key capacities of more resilient communities. These are the abilities of community members to self-organize to address changing threat levels, to hold scientifically sound understandings of the risks, and to learn from past experiences and take action - individually or collectively - to adapt to or mitigate the hazards in their local environment. We apply this resilience theory framework to a case study from Camp Minden, Louisiana, conducted through the Louisiana State University (LSU) Superfund Research Center's Community Engagement program and supported by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS). The case illuminates a critical path by which resilience theory can be applied to guide bi-directional communication and information-gathering, and co-development of risk-reducing strategies at the community level. These are central elements of community engagement within a contentious, real-world setting. The three components of the resilience framework were supported by specific program mechanisms and activities. The capacity for self-organization among community stakeholders was furthered through the convening of a Dialogue Committee which brought together representatives of concerned residents, regulatory agencies, research scientists, and others. This collaborative problem-solving approach supported a more holistic and scientifically sound understanding of the problem through a series of interactive meetings in which members discussed site-remediation options with thermal-treatment experts and regulators, and shared how recent explosions and concerns about air quality affected them. The members co-developed selection criteria and reached consensus on two types of disposal methods that would best reduce the significant threats to public health and the local environment. We also include a brief summary of our recent randomized survey of over 550 residents of Louisiana's industrialized communities to determine the influences on household-level adaptive behaviors to reduce acute and chronic environmental exposure risks. The results of the logistic regression analysis indicate that residents with more concern and knowledge about environmental hazards, along with confidence in their ability to implement risk-reduction measures - such as checking air-quality forecasts and then limiting outside activities - were much more likely to adopt the exposure-reducing behaviors, even when controlling for socioeconomic and demographic differences among respondents. These findings shed light on the conditions under which residents of these types of communities may be more likely to take action to reduce potential environmental exposure risks, and may help in the design of public education efforts. These "lessons learned" from Louisiana communities facing cumulative environmental exposure risks suggest that application of resilience theory to the design and implementation of community engagement programs may support the longer-term effectiveness of the efforts and enhance overall environmental health resilience. In addition, they provide practical insights about how to operationalize and apply these theoretical concepts to real-world environmental health challenges faced by residents of industrialized communities throughout the world.

Community resilience and critical transformations: the case of St. Gabriel, Louisiana.

Introduction Community resilience, the ability of a community to respond positively to adverse situations, is an increasingly important topic in public health. Many resilience frameworks are grounded in concepts initially developed by ecologists to describe and explain the capacity of complex systems, such as a community, to persist or return to its original state following disturbances. As a result, much of the research on resilience is concerned with maintaining systems in their current form, preventing degradation, or promoting recovery. However, for a system that is stuck in a trap, or an unfavorable state, deliberate efforts to build the components that contribute to resilience, called adaptive capacities, may enable that system to reorganize after a disturbance to reach a more favorable state. Objective The purpose of this research was to apply a resilience framework to analyze how the community of St. Gabriel, Louisiana adapted in response to environmental change. Methods We used qualitative case-study methodologies to systematically collect newspaper articles, which served as primary data sources to examine how resilience and adaptive capacity evolved in the community of St. Gabriel, Louisiana. Results Key events in the recent history of St. Gabriel include industrial development, growing concern about environmental health and pollution, the environmental justice (EJ) movement, and the incorporation of the community as a self-governing municipality. Two events, the community's organized resistance to a large hazardous waste facility and the change in government structure, represent critical transformations, or fundamental changes in how the community functions. Conclusion The incorporation of St. Gabriel gave community members more input in planning and development decisions. As a result, the community has taken steps to improve public health in the form of zoning ordinances to prevent new exposure risks and building community infrastructure, such as a new sewer system and a recreation center.