Public health information systems for primary health care in India: A situational analysis study.

INTRODUCTION: Information communication technology (ICT) based health information systems (HISs) are expected to transform health system functionality. The present study was aimed to evaluate HISs in India with a focus on primary health care (PHC). METHODOLOGY: The study used a qualitative method to evaluate and understand various ICT-based HIS implemented at the state/union territory (UT) level in India. After initial scoping research on HIS through literature search and observation, in-depth interviews of key informants at various levels (programme managers, analysts, co-ordinators, data entry operator and health care providers) was carried out to have an insight on the user experience of these systems. An inductive applied thematic coding of qualitative data was done for analysing the data. RESULTS: Multiple applications have been developed under national health programmes to meet the health information needs, but at present, there is a limited role of these HISs in enhancing the effectiveness of comprehensive PHC. Many of these systems are proprietary-based, and the long-term sustainability and integration of these systems remain a challenge. CONCLUSION: A change is required in the approach to design a HIS that will cater to the needs of PHC. Moreover, HIS should be people-centred rather than technology-centric with focus on integration and sustainability.

Alzheimer disease immunotherapeutics: then and now.

Dementia is a public health priority and one of the major contributors to morbidity and global non-communicable disease burden, thus necessitating the need for significant health-care interventions. Alzheimer disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia and may contribute to 60-70% of cases. The cause and progression of AD are not well understood but have been thought to be due at least in part to protein misfolding (proteopathy) manifest as plaque accumulation of abnormally folded ß-amyloid and tau proteins in brain. There are about 8 million new cases per year. The total number of people with dementia is projected to almost double every 20 years, to 66 million in 2030 and 115 million in 2050. Immunotherapy in AD aimed at ß-amyloid covers 2 types of vaccination: active vaccination against Aß42 in which patients receive injections of the antigen itself, or passive vaccination in which patients receive injections of monoclonal antibodies (mAb) against Aß42. Three of the peptide vaccines for active immunizations, CAD106, ACC001, and Affitope, are in phase 2 clinical trials. Three of the mAbs solanezumab, gantenerumab, and crenezumab, are or were in phase 2 and 3 clinical studies. While the phase 3 trials failed, one of these may have shown a benefit at least in mild forms of AD. There is a need for a greater initiative in the development of immunotherapeutics. Several avenues have been explored and still to come.

Vaccination for pregnant women: need to address.

Pregnancy is a critically important state for any women in her life time. Administration of a vaccine to a pregnant woman is not a routine event and it is generally preferred to administer vaccines either prior to conception or in the postpartum period. Currently vaccination with inactivated vaccines are recommended due to potential risk to mother and fetus with live vaccines. Multiple factors determine the administration of the vaccines for example age, life style, medical conditions (e.g., asthma, diabetes etc.), type and location of travel and status of previous vaccination. If pregnant woman is exposed to these vaccines or if pregnancy occurs soon after vaccination, the women should be counselled regarding the risks to the fetus and vaccination should not be a reason to consider termination of pregnancy. Further research in vaccination among pregnancy is warranted for the safety of the pregnant women and their newborn for a healthy living and better life.

Dengue vaccine: a valuable asset for the future.

Dengue has emerged as one of the major global public health problems. The disease has broken out of its shell and has spread due to increased international travel and climatic changes. Globally, over 2.5 billion people accounting for >40% of the world's population are at risk from dengue. Since the 1940s, dengue vaccines have been under investigation. A live-attenuated tetravalent vaccine based on chimeric yellow fever-dengue virus (CYD-TDV) has progressed to phase III efficacy studies. Dengue vaccine has been found to be a cost-effective intervention to reduce morbidity and mortality. Current dengue vaccine candidates aim to protect against the 4 dengue serotypes, but the recent discovery of a fifth serotype could complicate vaccine development. In recent years, an urgent need has been felt for a vaccine to prevent the morbidity and mortality from this disease in a cost-effective way.

Malaria vaccine: a step toward elimination.

Malaria has long been recognized as a public health problem. At the community level, vector control, and antimalarial medicines are the main means for reducing incidence, morbidity, and mortality of malaria. A vaccine not only would bring streamlining in the prevention of morbidity and mortality from malaria but also would be more accessible if integrated with Expanded Programme of Immunization (EPI). Globally, an estimated 3.4 billion people are at risk of malaria. Most cases (80%) and deaths (90%) occurred in Africa, and most deaths (77%) are in children under 5 years of age. An effective vaccine has long been envisaged as a valuable addition to the available tools for malaria control. Although research toward the development of malaria vaccines has been pursued since the 1960s, there are no licensed malaria vaccines. The RTS,S/AS01 vaccine, which targets P. falciparum, has reached phase 3 clinical trials and results are promising. Malaria Vaccine Technology Road Map 2013 has envisaged the world aiming for a licensed vaccine by 2030 that would reduce malaria cases by 75% and be capable of eliminating malaria. It will not only fill the gaps of today's interventions but also be a cost-effective method of decreasing morbidity and mortality from malaria.

Vaccination in HIV positive adults: need to address.

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) continues to be a major public health program. Without treatment, average survival time without treatment after infection with HIV is estimated to be 9 to 11 years, depending on the HIV subtype. Vaccination recommendations are determined by weighing the benefits of vaccination against the risks. It is preferable to have patients on antiretroviral therapy (ART) prior to receipt of vaccination, as that may help blunt or eliminate vaccine-associated viremia and potentially improve immune response to vaccination. : Although data are limited, in general, HIV-infected individuals who are on ART with well-controlled HIV RNA levels and CD4 counts of >200 cells/µL (or = 15%) may receive indicated live-virus vaccines. Vaccination can play a vital role in enhancing the immunity against opportunistic infections. Further research, is the need for a better and healthy living of the people with HIV.

Hepatitis C: is a vaccine the solution?

Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) infection is a major cause of chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Following acute infection, 20% of people eliminate the virus over weeks or months and are often asymptomatic. The remaining 80% of people will develop chronic disease, of which approximately 20% will eventually develop liver cirrhosis and 1-5% will develop liver cancer. About 150 million people are chronically infected with HCV, and more than 350,000 people die every year from hepatitis C related liver diseases. The economic cost of hepatitis C is significant both to the individual and to the society. In the United States the average lifetime cost of the disease was estimated at $33,407 USD with the cost of a liver transplant approximately $200,000 USD. PEG-IFN and ribavirin treatment is also expensive and, at an average cost of approximately GB £7000 in the UK for a treatment course, is unaffordable in developing countries. Hepatitis C, not only brings down the quality of the life of individuals but also affect progress of the nation by adding financial burden. If we prevent the disease from occurring or find a perfect cure of the disease, in form of a prophylactic or therapeutic vaccine, it will be a boon to not only to the individual but to the nation as a whole.

Vaccination for safe travel to India.

Worldwide more than 900 million international journeys are undertaken every year. India is one of the favorite tourist destinations around the world. International travel exposes travelers to a range of health risks. Traveling to India possess a threat to travelers with waterborne diseases like bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A and E, and typhoid fever; vector borne diseases like dengue fever, Japanese encephalitis, and malaria; animal contact disease like rabies. Furthermore diseases spreading through behavior aspects cannot be ruled out hence posing a risk for hepatitis B, HIV/AIDS, hepatitis C as well. Hence, before travel the travelers are advised about the risk of disease in the country or countries they plan to visit and the steps to be taken to prevent illness. Vaccination offers the possibility of avoiding a number of infectious diseases that may be countered abroad. There is no single vaccination schedule that fits all travelers. Each schedule must be individualized according to the traveler's previous immunizations, countries to be visited, type and duration of travel, and the amount of time available before departure.

Adult immunization: the need to address.

Vaccination is recommended throughout life to prevent vaccine-preventable diseases and their sequel. The primary focus of vaccination programs has historically been directed to childhood immunizations. For adults, chronic diseases have been the primary focus of preventive and medical health care, though there has been increased emphasis on preventing infectious diseases. Adult vaccination coverage, however, remains low for most of the routinely recommended vaccines. Though adults are less susceptible to fall prey to traditional infectious agents, the probability of exposure to infectious agents has increased manifold owing to globalization and increasing travel opportunities both within and across the countries. Thus, there is an urgent need to address the problem of adult immunization. The adult immunization enterprise is more complex, encompassing a wide variety of vaccines and a very diverse target population. There is no coordinated public health infrastructure to support an adult immunization program as there is for children. Moreover, there is little coordination among adult healthcare providers in terms of vaccine provision. Substantial improvement in adult vaccination is needed to reduce the health consequences of vaccine-preventable diseases among adults. Routine assessment of adult patient vaccination needs, recommendation, and offer of needed vaccines for adults should be incorporated into routine clinical care of adults.