Preschool Mathematics and Literacy Skills and Educational Attainment in Adolescents Born Preterm and Full Term.

OBJECTIVES: To test whether preschool academic skills were associated with educational attainment in adolescence and whether associations differed between individuals born preterm and at full term. STUDY DESIGN: This prospective cohort study comprised 6924 individuals, including n = 444 (6.4%) adolescents born preterm (<37 weeks of gestation) from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Preschool academic (mathematics and literacy) skills were rated by teachers at 4-5 years. Educational attainment at 16 years was informed by attaining a General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) in key subjects mathematics and English. Logistic regressions assessed the association between preterm birth, preschool mathematics, and GCSE Mathematics and between preterm birth, preschool literacy, and GCSE English. RESULTS: Similar numbers of adolescents born preterm and at term achieved a GCSE in mathematics and English (53.6 % vs 57.4% and 59.5% vs 63.9%, respectively; P values > .05). Higher preschool academic skill scores in mathematics were associated with greater odds of attaining GCSE Mathematics and preschool literacy skills were associated with GCSE English. Adolescents born preterm with higher preschool mathematics (OR: 1.51, CI: 1.14, 2.00) and literacy skills (OR: 1.57, CI: 1.10, 2.25) were more likely to attain GCSEs in the respective subject than their term-born counterparts with equal levels of preschool skills. CONCLUSIONS: Preschool academic skills in mathematics and literacy are associated with educational attainment of preterm and term-born individuals in adolescence. Children born prematurely may benefit more from preschool mathematics and literacy skills for academic and educational success into adolescence than term-born individuals.

The association between early regulatory problems and adult peer relationship quality is mediated by the brain's allostatic-interoceptive system.

BACKGROUND: Early regulatory problems (RPs), i.e., problems with crying, sleeping, and/or feeding during the first years, increase the risk for avoidant personality traits in adulthood, associated with social withdrawal and anxiety. Even more, RPs are linked with functional alterations in the adult default mode and salience networks, comprising the brain's allostatic-interoceptive system (AIS) and playing a role in social interactions. We investigated whether RPs assessed in infancy are associated with difficulties in adult peer relationships mediated by functional alterations of the AIS. METHODS: As part of a large case-controlled prospective study, 42 adults with previous RPs and 70 matched controls (mean age = 28.48, SD = 2.65, 51% male) underwent fMRI during rest. The analysis focused on the intrinsic functional connectivity (iFC) of key nodes of the AIS. Peer relationship quality was assessed via a semi-structured Life Course Interview and the YASR scale. In these same individuals, RPs were assessed at ages 5, 20 and 56 months. RESULTS: RPs in infancy were associated with lower-quality peer relationships and enhanced functional connectivity of the AIS nodes in adulthood, with a stronger effect for multiple and persistent RPs compared with transient-multiple or single-persistent RPs. Importantly, iFC changes of the dorsal mid insula, a primary interoceptive cortex with frontal and temporal regions, mediated the relationship between early RPs and adult peer relationship quality. CONCLUSIONS: Results indicate long-lasting social and neural changes associated with early RPs. Our findings further implicate the AIS in both interoceptive and social processes, while indicating the need for early screening of early RPs.

Changes in social relationships from 26 to 34 years of age in adults born very preterm.

BACKGROUND: Very preterm and/or very low birthweight (VP/VLBW; <32 weeks' gestation and/or <1500 g birthweight) individuals rated their partner and peer relationships lower than term-born individuals in emerging adulthood, but their quality of relationships with parents has been rarely investigated. Moreover, it is unclear whether previously reported differences in social relationship characteristics persist or lessen from emerging to established adulthood. OBJECTIVES: To investigate changes in social relationship characteristics in VP/VLBW adults compared to term-born adults from 26 to 34 years and whether the association between VP/VLBW and social relationship characteristics varies according to sex. METHODS: In this prospective whole-population birth cohort study in South Bavaria, Germany, social relationship characteristics with parents, partners and peers, and overall social relationships across these domains were evaluated with a Life Course Interview at 26 and 34 years. Interview items related to these domains were extracted and scored as 0 (optimal) and 1 (non-optimal). Each score was summed into domain-specific composite scores and standardised according to the total sample. RESULTS: Participants included 262 VP/VLBW (52.7% males) and 230 term-born individuals (47.0% males). VP/VLBW adults had lower overall social relationship scores than term-born adults (ß = -.61, 95% CI -0.85, -0.37). Specifically, partner (ß = -.50, 95% CI-0.74, -0.27) and peer relationship scores (ß = -.55, 95% CI-0.78, -0.32) were lower than those of term-born adults, but scores did not differ for parent relationships. On average, partner (ß = .25, 95% CI 0.14, 0.35) and peer relationship scores increased (ß = .16, 95% CI 0.03, 0.29), while parent relationship scores decreased (ß = -.64, 95% CI-0.79, -0.49) from 26 to 34 years. These changes were similar for VP/VLBW and term-born individuals. CONCLUSIONS: Patterns of change for the improved partner and peer but worsening parental social relationship scores were common across VP/VLBW and term-born adults, but differences between the two groups persisted from 26 to 34 years.

Mental health, pain and tiredness in adults born very preterm or with very low birthweight.

AIM: Adults born preterm have increased risk of mental health problems and other neurodevelopmental conditions. We aimed to investigate associations of mental health with pain and tiredness in adults born very preterm (VP; <32 weeks) or very low birthweight (VLBW; <1500 g) and at term, and whether these associations are influenced by physical activity. METHODS: As part of an EU Horizon 2020 project, individual participant data from six prospective cohort studies were harmonised for 617 VP/VLBW and 1122 term-born participants. Mental health was assessed by the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment Adult Self-Report. Pain and tiredness were harmonised based on specific items from self-reported questionnaires. Associations between mental health and pain or tiredness were explored by linear regression. RESULTS: An increase in the mental health scales internalising, externalising and total problems was associated with increased pain and tiredness in the preterm and term group alike. Results were maintained when adjusting for physical activity. CONCLUSION: The findings indicate that associations between mental health, pain and tiredness in adults are independent of gestation or birthweight. Future research should explore other potential mechanisms that may underlie the increased risk of mental health problems in the preterm population.

Romantic and sexual relationships of young adults born very preterm: An individual participant data meta-analysis.

AIM: To compare romantic and sexual relationships between adults born very preterm (VP; <32 weeks of gestation) or with very low birth weight (VLBW; <1500 g) and at term, and to evaluate potential biological and environmental explanatory factors among VP/VLBW participants. METHODS: This individual participant data (IPD) meta-analysis included longitudinal studies assessing romantic and sexual relationships in adults (mean sample age ≥ 18 years) born VP/VLBW compared with term-born controls. Following PRISMA-IPD guidelines, 11 of the 13 identified cohorts provided IPD from 1606 VP/VLBW adults and 1659 term-born controls. IPD meta-analyses were performed using one-stage approach. RESULTS: Individuals born VP/VLBW were less likely to be in a romantic relationship (OR 0.49; 95% CI 0.31-0.76), to be married/cohabiting (OR 0.70, 95% CI 0.53-0.92), or to have had sexual intercourse (OR 0.21, 95% CI 0.09-0.36) than term-born adults. If sexually active, VP/VLBW participants were more likely to experience their first sexual intercourse after the age of 18 years (OR 1.93, 95% CI 1.24-3.01) than term-born adults. Among VP/VLBW adults, males, and those with neurosensory impairment were least likely to experience romantic relationships. CONCLUSIONS: These findings reflect less optimal social functioning and may have implications for socioeconomic and health outcomes of adults born VP/VLBW.

Participation in club sport in childhood is associated with mental health in preterm and term born adolescents.

Preterm born individuals have an increased risk for mental health problems. Participation in club sport is associated with better mental health but the causal direction is unclear. It is not known whether this association could also be found in preterm children. Data from term born (N = 10,368), late preterm (N = 630), and very to moderately preterm born (N = 243) children from the Millennium Cohort Study at the ages of 3, 5, 7, 11, and 14 years were used. Longitudinal associations between the parent-reported Strengths and Difficulties questionnaire (SDQ) and club sport participation (days per week) were analysed using multigroup structural equation modelling, adjusting for gender, maternal depression, parental education; motor problems and attrition were controlled for. Multi-group structural equation modelling showed that children with more peer relationship problems, emotional symptoms, conduct problems or hyperactivity-inattention were less likely to participate in club sport at subsequent assessment time points. More days with club sport participation was associated with lower levels of emotional symptoms and peer relationship problems but not conduct problems or hyperactivity-inattention at subsequent ages. Results were similar in all gestational age groups. Club sport participation predicts lower levels of peer relationship and emotional problems in subsequent waves while it is also predicted by lower levels of emotional problems, peer relationship problems, conduct problems and hyperactivity-inattention in preceding waves. Since no differences in the relationship between SDQ subscales and club sport participation were seen with regard to gestational age groups, club sport should be encouraged in all children.

Problems in peer relationships and low engagement in romantic relationships in preterm born adolescents: effects of maternal warmth in early childhood.

This study examined whether maternal warmth in early childhood moderates the association between preterm birth and problems in peer relationships and low engagement in romantic relationships in adolescence. We studied 9193 individuals from the Millennium Cohort Study in the United Kingdom, 99 (1.1%) of whom were born very preterm (VPT; < 32 weeks of gestation) and 629 (6.8%) moderate-to-late preterm (MLPT; 32-36 weeks gestation). Maternal warmth was reported by the mothers when their children were 3 years old. Peer relationship problems were reported by both the participants and their mothers at 14 and 17 years. Further, participants reported their engagement in romantic relationships at 14 and 17 years. All outcome variables were z-standardized, and the moderation effect was examined via hierarchical linear regressions. Compared to full-term birth, both MLPT and VPT birth were associated with lower engagement in romantic relationships at 17 years of age (b = .04, p = .02; b = .11, p = .02, respectively), and VPT birth was associated with increased peer relationship problems at 14 (b = .29, p = .01) and 17 years of age (b = .22, p = .046). Maternal warmth in early childhood was similarly associated with lower peer relationship problems in MLPT, VPT and full-term born adolescents. However, there was no influence of maternal warmth on engagement in romantic relationships at 17 years of age. There is no major modifying effect of maternal warmth in early childhood on the association between PT birth and peer relationship problems and low engagement in romantic relationships at 14 and 17 years of ages.

The association of early regulatory problems with behavioral problems and cognitive functioning in adulthood: two cohorts in two countries.

BACKGROUND: Regulatory problems (RPs; excessive crying, sleeping, or feeding difficulties) that co-occur (i.e., multiple) or are persistent have been associated with cognitive and behavioral problems in childhood. However, it remains unknown if multiple or persistent RPs are associated with cognitive and behavioral problems in adulthood. METHODS: This large prospective longitudinal study (N = 759) was conducted in two cohorts in Germany (N = 342) and Finland (N = 417). RPs were assessed at 5, 20, and 56 months via the same standardized parental interviews and neurological examinations. In young adulthood, questionnaires were used to assess behavioral problems. Cognitive functioning was assessed with IQ tests. We examined the effects of multiple or persistent RPs on the outcomes via analysis of covariance tests and logistic regression controlled for the influence of cohort. RESULTS: Of 163 participants with RPs, 89 had multiple and 77 had persistent RPs. Adults who had early multiple or persistent RPs (N = 151) reported more internalizing (p = .001), externalizing (p = .020), and total behavioral problems (p = .001), and, specifically, more depressive (p = .012), somatic (p = .005), avoidant personality (p < .001), and antisocial personality problems (p = .006) than those who never had RPs (N = 596). Participants with multiple or persistent RPs were more likely to receive any ADHD diagnoses (p = .017), particularly of hyperactive/impulsive subtype (p = .032). In contrast, there were no associations between multiple or persistent RPs and IQ scores in young adulthood. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate long-lasting associations between multiple or persistent RPs and behavioral problems. Thus, screening for early RPs could help to identify children who are at risk for later behavioral problems.

Associations of crying, sleeping, and feeding problems in early childhood and perceived social support with emotional disorders in adulthood.

BACKGROUND: Multiple or persistent crying, sleeping, or feeding problems in early childhood (regulatory problems) are associated with increased internalizing symptoms in adulthood. Unknown is whether early regulatory problems are associated with emotional disorders in adulthood, and what psychosocial factors may provide protection. We tested whether early childhood multiple or persistent regulatory problems are associated with a higher risk of (a) any mood and anxiety disorder in adulthood; (b) perceiving no social support in adulthood; and (c) whether social support provides protection from mood and anxiety disorders among participants who had multiple/persistent regulatory problems and those who never had regulatory problems. METHODS: Data from two prospective longitudinal studies in Germany (n = 297) and Finland (n = 342) was included (N = 639). Regulatory problems were assessed at 5, 20, and 56 months with the same standardized parental interviews and neurological examinations. In adulthood (24-30 years), emotional disorders were assessed with diagnostic interviews and social support with questionnaires. RESULTS: Children with multiple/persistent regulatory problems (n = 132) had a higher risk of any mood disorder (odds ratio (OR) = 1.81 [95% confidence interval = 1.01-3.23]) and of not having any social support from peers and friends (OR = 1.67 [1.07-2.58]) in adulthood than children who never had regulatory problems. Social support from peers and friends provided protection from mood disorders, but only among adults who never had regulatory problems (OR = 4.03 [2.16-7.94]; p = .039 for regulatory problems x social support interaction). CONCLUSIONS: Children with multiple/persistent regulatory problems are at increased risk of mood disorders in young adulthood. Social support from peers and friends may, however, only provide protection from mood disorders in individuals who never had regulatory problems.

Emotional problems and peer victimization in adolescents born very preterm and full-term: Role of self-control skills in childhood.

The aim of the current study was to examine whether self-control skills in childhood moderate the association between very preterm birth (<32 weeks of gestational age) and emotional problems and peer victimization in adolescence. We used data from four prospective cohort studies, which included 29,378 participants in total (N = 645 very preterm; N = 28,733 full-term). Self-control was mother-reported in childhood at 5-11 years whereas emotional problems and peer victimization were both self- and mother-reported at 12-17 years of age. Findings of individual participant data meta-analysis showed that self-control skills in childhood do not moderate the association between very preterm birth and adolescence emotional problems and peer victimization. It was shown that higher self-control skills in childhood predict lower emotional problems and peer victimization in adolescence similarly in very preterm and full-term borns.

Early regulatory problems and parenting: life-long risk, vulnerability or susceptibility for attention, internalizing and externalizing outcomes?

Multiple or persistent crying, sleeping, or feeding problems in early childhood (regulatory problems, RPs) predict increased risk for self-regulation difficulties. Sensitive parenting may protect children from trajectories of dysregulation. Considering self-regulation from a life-course perspective, are children with early multiple and/or persistent RPs affected similarly by parenting as those without (main effects model, ME), or are they more vulnerable (diathesis-stress, DIA-S), or more susceptible (differential susceptibility theory, DST) to variations in sensitive parenting at age 6 years? Participants (N = 302) were studied prospectively from birth to 28 years. RPs were assessed from 5 to 56 months. Sensitive parenting was observed at 6 years. Attention regulation was observed at 8 and 28 years. Internalizing and externalizing problems were rated by parents at 8 years, and by adults at 28 years. Confirmatory-comparative modelling tested whether associations of sensitive parenting with outcomes at 8 and 28 years among individuals with early multiple and/or persistent RPs (n = 74) versus those without (n = 228) were best explained by ME, DIA-S, or DST models. Best fitting models differed according to age at assessment. For childhood attention regulation, the statistically parsimonious DIA-S provided the best fit to the data. At age 28, two additive main effects (ME, RP group and sensitive parenting) fit best. DIA-S and ME explained internalizing and externalizing problems. Using a comprehensive life-span approach, DIA-S and ME models but not DST explained how early RPs and sensitive parenting predicted attention, internalizing, and externalizing outcomes. Individuals with early RPs are vulnerable to insensitive parenting.

Hippocampal subfield volumes are nonspecifically reduced in premature-born adults.

Reduced global hippocampus volumes have been demonstrated in premature-born individuals, from newborns to adults; however, it is unknown whether hippocampus subfield (HCSF) volumes are differentially affected by premature birth and how relevant they are for cognitive performance. To address these questions, we investigated magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-derived HCSF volumes in very premature-born adults, and related them with general cognitive performance in adulthood. We assessed 103 very premature-born (gestational age [GA] <32 weeks and/or birth weight <1,500 g) and 109 term-born individuals with cognitive testing and structural MRI at 26 years of age. HCSFs were automatically segmented based on three-dimensional T1- and T2-weighted sequences and studied both individually and grouped into three functional units, namely hippocampus proper (HP), subicular complex (SC), and dentate gyrus (DG). Cognitive performance was measured using the Wechsler-Adult-Intelligence-Scale (full-scale intelligence quotient [FS-IQ]) at 26 years. We observed bilateral volume reductions for almost all HCSF volumes in premature-born adults and associations with GA and neonatal treatment intensity but not birth weight. Left-sided HP, SC, and DG volumes were associated with adult FS-IQ. Furthermore, left DG volume was a mediator of the association between GA and adult FS-IQ in premature-born individuals. Results demonstrate nonspecifically reduced HCSF volumes in premature-born adults; but specific associations with cognitive outcome highlight the importance of the left DG. Data suggest that specific interventions toward hippocampus function might be promising to lower adverse cognitive effects of prematurity.

Early Crying, Sleeping, and Feeding Problems and Trajectories of Attention Problems From Childhood to Adulthood.

This study investigated if crying, sleeping or feeding problems that co-occur (multiple regulatory problems [RPs]) or are persistent predict attention problems and diagnoses of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in childhood and adulthood. Participants were 342 individuals who were assessed at 5, 20, and 56 months for crying, sleeping, and feeding (RPs) and at 6, 8, and 28 years for ADHD diagnoses, attention problems, and attention span. Infants/toddlers with multiple/persistent RPs had an increased risk of receiving an ADHD diagnosis both in childhood and adulthood compared to those who never had RPs. Multiple/persistent RPs were further associated with a high-decreasing attention problems trajectory from childhood to adulthood. Interventions to alleviate early RPs may prevent the development of attention problems.

Predictors of early motor trajectories from birth to 5 years in neonatal at-risk and control children.

AIM: To describe motor development in preschool children, to identify perinatal, neonatal and social environmental risk factors of poor motor development, and to replicate results in a second cohort. METHODS: Two prospective samples in Germany (Bavarian Longitudinal Study, BLS) and Finland (Arvo Ylppö Longitudinal Study, AYLS) assessed 4741 and 1423 children from birth to 56 months, respectively. Motor functioning was evaluated at birth, and 5, 20 and 56 months. Perinatal, neonatal and social environmental information was collected at birth and 5 months. RESULTS: Two distinct motor trajectories were identified: low (BLS: n = 4486 (94.6%), AYLS: n = 1391 (97.8%)) and high (BLS: n = 255 (5.4%), AYLS: n = 32 (2.2%)) degree of motor difficulties. High degree of motor difficulties was predicted by neonatal complications, abnormal neonatal neurological status, duration of hospitalisation and poor parent-infant relationships. Although neonatal complications and poor parent-infant relationships did not significantly predict high degree of motor difficulties in the AYLS, the trends identified were similar to those obtained from the BLS. CONCLUSION: Early identification of children at-risk of motor difficulties across infancy and toddlerhood may help referring those children to interventions earlier. Modifiable risk factors, such as parent-infant relationships, may be addressed by intervention strategies to prevent children from developing motor difficulties.

Impaired structural connectivity between dorsal attention network and pulvinar mediates the impact of premature birth on adult visual-spatial abilities.

The dorsal attention network (DAN), including frontal eye fields and posterior parietal cortices, and its link with the posterior thalamus, contribute to visual-spatial abilities. Very premature birth impairs both visual-spatial abilities and cortico-thalamic structural connectivity. We hypothesized that impaired structural DAN-pulvinar connectivity mediates the effect of very premature birth on adult visual-spatial abilities. Seventy very premature (median age 26.6 years) and 57 mature born adults (median age 26.6 years) were assessed with cognitive tests and diffusion tensor imaging. Perceptual organization (PO) index of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-III was used as a proxy for visual-spatial abilities, and connection probability maps in the thalamus, derived from probabilistic tractography from the DAN, were used as a proxy for DAN-thalamic connectivity. Premature born adults showed decreases in both PO-index and connection probability from DAN into the pulvinar, with both changes being positively correlated. Moreover, path analysis revealed that DAN-pulvinar connectivity mediates the relationship between very premature birth and PO-index. Results provide evidence for long-term effects of very premature birth on structural DAN-pulvinar connectivity, mediating the effect of prematurity on adult visual-spatial impairments. Data suggest DAN-pulvinar connectivity as a specific target of prognostic and diagnostic procedures for visual-spatial abilities after premature birth.

A machine learning investigation of volumetric and functional MRI abnormalities in adults born preterm.

Imaging studies have characterized functional and structural brain abnormalities in adults after premature birth, but these investigations have mostly used univariate methods that do not account for hypothesized interdependencies between brain regions or quantify accuracy in identifying individuals. To overcome these limitations, we used multivariate machine learning to identify gray matter volume (GMV) and amplitude of low frequency fluctuations (ALFF) brain patterns that best classify young adults born very preterm/very low birth weight (VP/VLBW; n = 94) from those born full-term (FT; n = 92). We then compared the spatial maps of the structural and functional brain signatures and validated them by assessing associations with clinical birth history and basic cognitive variables. Premature birth could be predicted with a balanced accuracy of 80.7% using GMV and 77.4% using ALFF. GMV predictions were mediated by a pattern of subcortical and middle temporal reductions and volumetric increases of the lateral prefrontal, medial prefrontal, and superior temporal gyrus regions. ALFF predictions were characterized by a pattern including increases in the thalamus, pre- and post-central gyri, and parietal lobes, in addition to decreases in the superior temporal gyri bilaterally. Decision scores from each classification, assessing the degree to which an individual was classified as a VP/VLBW case, were predicted by the number of days in neonatal hospitalization and birth weight. ALFF decision scores also contributed to the prediction of general IQ, which highlighted their potential clinical significance. Combined, the results clarified previous research and suggested that primary subcortical and temporal damage may be accompanied by disrupted neurodevelopment of the cortex.

Automated quantitative evaluation of brain MRI may be more accurate for discriminating preterm born adults.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the structural brain abnormalities and their diagnostic accuracy through qualitative and quantitative analysis in term born and very preterm birth or with very low birth weight (VP/VLBW) adults. METHODS: We analyzed 3-T MRIs acquired in 2011-2013 from 67 adults (27 term born controls, mean age 26.4 years, 8 females; 40 VP/VLBWs, mean age 26.6 years, 16 females). We compared automatic segmentations of the white matter, deep gray matter and cortical gray matter, manual corpus callosum measurements and visual ratings of the ventricles and white matter with t tests, logistic regression, and receiver operator characteristic (ROC) curves. RESULTS: Automatic segmentation correctly classified 84% of cases; visual ratings correctly classified 63%. Quantitative volumetry based on automatic segmentation revealed higher ventricular volume, lower posterior corpus callosum, and deep gray matter volumes in VP/VLBW subjects compared to controls (p < 0.01). Visual rating and manual measurement revealed a thinner corpus callosum in VP/VLBW adults (p = 0.04) and deformed lateral ventricles (p = 0.03) and tendency towards more "dirty" white matter (p = 0.06). Automatic/manual measures combined with visual ratings correctly classified 87% of cases. Stepwise logistic regression identified three independent features that correctly classify 81% of cases: ventricular volume, deep gray matter volume, and white matter aspect. CONCLUSION: Enlarged and deformed lateral ventricles, thinner corpus callosum, and "dirty" white matter are prevalent in preterm born adults. Their visual evaluation has low diagnostic accuracy. Automatic volume quantification is more accurate but time consuming. It may be useful to ask for prematurity before initiating further diagnostics in subjects with these alterations. KEY POINTS: • Our study confirms prior reports showing that structural brain abnormalities related to preterm birth persist into adulthood. • In the clinical practice, if large and deformed lateral ventricles, small and thin corpus callosum, and "dirty" white matter are visible on MRI, ask for prematurity before considering other diagnoses. • Although prevalent, visual findings have low accuracy; adding automatic segmentation of lateral ventricles and deep gray matter nuclei improves the diagnostic accuracy.

The association of infant crying, feeding, and sleeping problems and inhibitory control with attention regulation at school age.

Regulatory problems in infancy and toddlerhood have previously been associated with an increased risk of developing attention problems in childhood. We hypothesized that early regulatory problems are associated with attention problems via reduced inhibitory control. This prospective study assessed 1,459 children from birth to 8 years. Crying, feeding, and sleeping problems were assessed at 5 and 20 months via parent interviews and neurological examinations. At 20 months, inhibitory control was tested with a behavioral (snack delay) task. Attention regulation was assessed at 6 and 8 years using multiple instruments and informants. Detrimental effects of crying, feeding, and sleeping problems on attention regulation were partly mediated by children's ability to inhibit unwanted behaviors (ß = -0.04, p = 0.013). Accounting for cognition diminished this indirect effect (ß = -0.01, p = 0.209). Instead, the effects of crying, feeding, and sleeping problems on attention regulation were fully mediated by children's cognitive functioning (ß = -0.10, p < 0.001). These results support that inhibitory control abilities partly mediate effects of crying, feeding, and sleeping problems. However, these effects may be accounted for by children's general cognitive abilities. Early regulatory problems may set infants on a course of under control of behavior into school age, and such trajectories are highly associated with general cognitive development.

Decreased BOLD fluctuations in lateral temporal cortices of premature born adults.

Lasting volume reductions in subcortical and temporal-insular cortices after premature birth suggest altered ongoing activity in these areas. We hypothesized altered fluctuations in ongoing neural excitability and activity, as measured by slowly fluctuating blood oxygenation of resting-state functional MRI (rs-fMRI), in premature born adults, with altered fluctuations being linked with underlying brain volume reductions. To investigate this hypothesis, 94 very preterm/very low birth weight (VP/VLBW) and 92 full-term born young adults underwent structural and rs-fMRI data acquisition with voxel-based morphometry and amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (ALFF) as main outcome measure. In VP/VLBW adults, ALFF was reduced in lateral temporal cortices, and this reduction was positively associated with lower birth weight. Regions of reduced ALFF overlapped with reduced brain volume. On the one hand, ALFF reduction remained after controlling for volume loss, supporting the functional nature of ALFF reductions. On the other hand, ALFF decreases were positively associated with underlying brain volume loss, indicating a relation between structural and functional changes. Furthermore, within the VP/VLBW group, reduced ALFF was associated with reduced IQ, indicating the behavioral relevance of ALFF decreases in temporal cortices. These results demonstrate long-term impact of premature birth on ongoing BOLD fluctuations in lateral temporal cortices, which are linked with brain volume reductions. Data suggest permanently reduced fluctuations in ongoing neural excitability and activity in structurally altered lateral temporal cortices after premature birth.

Mood and anxiety disorders in very preterm/very low-birth weight individuals from 6 to 26 years.

BACKGROUND: Very preterm (<32 weeks' gestational age; VP) or very low-birth weight (<1,500 g; VLBW) birth has been associated with increased risk for anxiety and mood disorders and less partnering in adulthood. The aim was to test whether (a) VP/VLBW are at increased risk of any anxiety or mood disorders from 6 to 26 years compared with term-born individuals; (b) social support from romantic partners is associated with protection from anxiety and mood disorders; and (c) VP/VLBW adults' lower social support mediates their risk for any anxiety and mood disorders. METHODS: Data are from a prospective geographically defined longitudinal whole-population study in South Bavaria (Germany). Two hundred VP/VLBW and 197 term individuals were studied from birth to adulthood. Anxiety and mood disorders were assessed at 6, 8, and 26 years with standardized diagnostic interviews and social support via self-report at age 26. RESULTS: At age 6, VP/VLBW children were not at increased risk of any anxiety or mood disorder. At age 8, VP/VLBW more often had any anxiety disorder than term comparisons (11.8% vs. 6.6%, OR = 2.10, 95% CI [1.08-4.10]). VP/VLBW adults had an increased risk for any mood (27.5% vs. 18.8%, OR = 1.65 [1.02-2.67]) but not for any anxiety disorder (33.0% vs. 28.4%, OR = 1.27 [0.82-1.96]). None of the significant differences survived correction for multiple testing. Social support was associated with a lower risk of anxiety or mood disorders in both groups (OR = 0.81 [0.68-0.96]) and mediated the association of VP/VLBW birth with any anxiety or any mood disorders at age 26. CONCLUSIONS: This study does not show a persistently increased risk for any anxiety or mood disorder after VP/VLBW birth. Low social support from a romantic partner mediates the risk for anxiety or mood disorders after VP/VLBW birth.