Evolution and prediction of mismatch between observed and perceived upper limb function after stroke: a prospective, longitudinal, observational cohort study.

BACKGROUND: A previously shown 'mismatch' group of patients with good observed upper limb (UL) motor function but low perceived UL activity at six months post stroke tends to use the affected UL less in daily life than would be expected based on clinical tests, and this mismatch may also be present at 12 months. We aimed to confirm this group in another cohort, to investigate the evolution of this group from six to 12 months, and to determine factors on admission to inpatient rehabilitation and at 6 months that can discriminate between mismatch and good match groups at 12 months. METHODS: Persons after stroke were recruited on rehabilitation admission and re-assessed at six and 12 months. Observed UL function was measured with the upper extremity subscale of the Fugl-Meyer Assessment (FMA-UE) and perceived UL activity by the hand subscale of the Stroke Impact Scale 3.0 (SIS-Hand). We defined mismatch as good observed UL function (FMA-UE > 50/66) but low perceived activity (SIS-Hand≤75/100). Potential discriminators at admission and 6 months (demographic characteristics, stroke characteristics, UL somatosensory function, cognitive deficits, mental function and activity) were statistically compared for match and mismatch groups at 12 months. RESULTS: We included 60 participants (female: 42%) with mean (SD) age of 65 (12) years. We confirmed a mismatch group of 11 (18%) patients at 6 months, which increased to 14 (23%) patients at 12 months. In the mismatch group compared to the good match group at 12 months, patients had a higher stroke severity and more somatosensory impairments on admission and at 6 months. CONCLUSIONS: We confirmed a group of patients with good observed UL function but low perceived activity both at six and at 12 months post stroke. Assessment of stroke severity and somatosensory impairments on admission into rehabilitation could determine mismatch at 12 months and might warrant intervention. However, large differences in clinical outcomes between patients in the mismatch group indicate the importance of tailoring training to the individual needs.

Specialized multidisciplinary care improves ALS survival in Belgium: a population-based retrospective study.

ALS is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by loss of motor neurons, resulting in progressive weakness and wasting of muscles. The average survival time is 2-5 years, mostly due to respiratory failure. Since current therapies can prolong survival time by only a few months, multidisciplinary care remains the cornerstone of the management of ALS. At the ALS Expert Centre of University Hospitals Leuven, a large proportion of Belgian ALS patients are seen for diagnosis and a significant number is also in follow-up with the multidisciplinary team. In this retrospective study, we compared the outcome of incident patients who were in follow-up at our site with patients who were not in follow-up. We included 659 patients of which 557 (84.5%) received specialized care at the ALS Expert Centre. After adjusting for clinically relevant prognostic parameters, multidisciplinary follow-up significantly prolonged survival (p = 0.004; HR = 0.683; CI 95% [0.528 - 0.884]). This increase in survival is mainly driven by patients with spinal onset (p = 0.035; HR = 0.746; CI 95% [0.568 - 0.980]), since no significant increased survival time was observed in patients with bulbar onset (p = 0.28; HR = 0.778; CI 95% [0.495 - 1.223]). These data confirm that multidisciplinary follow-up contributes to a better outcome of patients, emphasizing the importance of multidisciplinary specialized care in ALS.

COVID-19 recovery: benefits of multidisciplinary respiratory rehabilitation.

Many patients struggle with ongoing symptoms in different domains (physical, mental, cognitive) after hospitalisation for COVID-19, calling out for a multidisciplinary approach. An outpatient multidisciplinary rehabilitation programme, according to a respiratory rehabilitation strategy, was set up for adult patients who were able to attend group sessions during 12 weeks. Results of 22 adult patients with COVID-19, of which 15 had required intensive care, were analysed and some general impressions and challenges of rehabilitation in COVID-19 were reported. Impressive results on physical recovery were determined after 6 weeks and 3 months, with significant improvement of lung function, muscle force and exercise capacity variables. A positive evolution of mental and cognitive burden was present, although less pronounced than the physical recovery. These mental and cognitive consequences seem, next to musculoskeletal and medical complications, the most challenging aspect of rehabilitating patients with COVID-19. These real-world data show feasibility and efficiency of a multidisciplinary respiratory rehabilitation programme after moderate to severe COVID-19 disease.

Maximum weight-shifts in sitting in non-ambulatory people with stroke are related to trunk control and balance: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Impaired sitting balance is common in persons with stroke, affecting postural control in different directions. However, studies seldomly investigate sitting balance in severely affected non-ambulatory persons with stroke and precise assessment including the diagonal directions are scarce. RESEARCH QUESTION: Are measurements of maximal voluntary weight-shifts decreased in severely affected persons with stroke in comparison to healthy controls, and is there a relationship with clinical measurements of trunk control, sitting and standing balance? METHODS: 14 Persons with stroke were recruited in the rehabilitation phase along with 32 healthy controls. A clinical pressure platform (RM Ingénierie, France) evaluated the weight-distribution during static sitting and measurements of maximal voluntary weight-shifts, by centre of pressure displacements in six directions. Clinical measurements included Trunk Control Test, Trunk Impairment Scale and Berg Balance Scale. RESULTS: The persons with stroke had a mean (SD) age of 69 (17) years, including 5 females and 9 males and were on average 57 (40) days post stroke. No patient was able to walk without manual support and median (IQR) Berg Balance Scale score was 17 (6-33) out of 56 points. Measurements showed that the centre of pressure distance was significantly smaller in all directions in persons with stroke compared to healthy controls (p < 0.05). The clinical measurements demonstrated moderate to very high correlations with centre of pressure distance in the diagonal forward, diagonal backward and lateral directions (r = 0.54 - 0.89). SIGNIFICANCE: This study reveals that measurements of maximal voluntary weight-shifts are feasible and show clinically relevant deficits in severely affected non-ambulatory persons with stroke. Especially the lateral and diagonal directions can be of interest to investigate further as they are most strongly correlated with clinical measurements of balance. Reaching exercises in these directions could be considered a core element of rehabilitation for this group of patients.

Impact of COVID-19: urging a need for multi-domain assessment of COVID-19 inpatients.

OBJECTIVE: To retrospectively analyse data obtained from the multi-domain assessment of hospitalized COVID-19 patients, to describe their health status at discharge, and to investigate whether subgroups of patients, more specific ICU patients and older adults (> 70 years), had more (or less) risk to experience specific impairments. METHODS: Retrospective case series in the University Hospitals Leuven, Belgium of confirmed COVID-19 patients 'after surviving an ICU-stay', 'aged ≥ 70 years', or 'aged < 70 years with a length of hospitalization > 7 days'. Exclusion criteria were 'unwilling to cooperate', 'medically unstable', or 'palliative care policy'. Following tests were used: 'Five Times Sit To Stand Test', 'hand grip dynamometry', 'Barthel index', 'Swallowing screening', 'Montreal Cognitive Assessment', 'Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale', and 'Nutritional Risk Screening 2002'. RESULTS: One or more tests were obtained in 135/163 patients (83.3%). Physical impairments were present in 43.2-82.8% of the patients. Median BI was 10/20 indicating limited self-dependency. Swallow impairments were present in 3/53 (5.7%) and 24/76 (31.6%) had risk of malnutrition. Impaired memory was seen in 26/43 (60.5%) and 22/47 (46.8%) had elevated anxiety/depression scores. Older adults had more physical, functional, and cognitive impairments. ICU patients had a lower hand grip force. CONCLUSION(S): The high prevalence of physical, cognitive, psychological, and functional impairments in hospitalized COVID-19 patients, both ICU and non-ICU patients, indicates that assessment of impairments is imperative. These results imply that rehabilitation and follow-up is essential for these patients. This paper proposes a short, workable assessment composed with known outcome measures to assess different domains of COVID-19 patients.

Psychometric properties of the Flemish version of the life balance inventory: a patient-reported outcome measure in the chronic stage after stroke.

Purpose: To investigate test-retest reliability, measurement error, and convergent validity of the Flemish version of the Life Balance Inventory (Fl-LBI) in chronic community-dwelling stroke survivors.Methods: Stroke survivors living at home (>6 months post-stroke) were recruited. The Fl-LBI was administered twice (1st home-visit, 2nd postal), with a 1-week time interval.Results: Thirty-two stroke-survivors participated: median age 61 years (IQR: 54-67), median time since stroke 571 days (IQR: 433-734). Median total Fl-LBI score was 2.47(IQR: 2.18-2.80) out of 3 on the first occasion (n = 32) and 2.55(IQR: 2.35-2.77) on the second occasion (n = 29), 91% retention rate. The intraclass correlation coefficient [95% confidence interval] for total Fl-LBI score was 0.88 [0.77-0.94] and for subscale scores >0.74 [0.48-0.94] indicating moderate to good test-retest reliability. Standard error of measurement was 0.14 out of 3(7%) and minimal detectable difference 0.39(20%). Agreement for activity category scores ranged from moderate to excellent. Construct validity was supported by moderate associations between Fl-LBI and participation (rs = 0.46); mobility (rs = 0.36) and emotion (rs = 0.37) subscales of the Stroke Impact Scale.Conclusion: In a pilot sample, the FL-LBI has satisfactory test-retest reliability, acceptable measurement error and minimal detectable difference and acceptable convergent validity. It can be used in clinical practice and research to assess life balance in chronic community-dwelling stroke survivors.Implications for rehabilitationLife balance can be a useful concept in stroke rehabilitation; it corresponds to individuals' perception of having a satisfying activity pattern tailored to their life circumstances.The Flemish version of the Life Balance Inventory can be used to evaluate life balance in community-dwelling chronic stroke.Satisfactory test-retest reliability and acceptable measurement error and minimal detectable difference were demonstrated in a pilot sample for the Flemish version of the Life Balance Inventory.

Sensorimotor vs. Motor Upper Limb Therapy for Patients With Motor and Somatosensory Deficits: A Randomized Controlled Trial in the Early Rehabilitation Phase After Stroke.

Background: Somatosensory function plays an important role in motor learning. More than half of the stroke patients have somatosensory impairments in the upper limb, which could hamper recovery. Question: Is sensorimotor upper limb (UL) therapy of more benefit for motor and somatosensory outcome than motor therapy? Design: Randomized assessor- blinded multicenter controlled trial with block randomization stratified for neglect, severity of motor impairment, and type of stroke. Participants: 40 first-ever stroke patients with UL sensorimotor impairments admitted to the rehabilitation center. Intervention: Both groups received 16 h of additional therapy over 4 weeks consisting of sensorimotor (N = 22) or motor (N = 18) UL therapy. Outcome measures: Action Research Arm test (ARAT) as primary outcome, and other motor and somatosensory measures were assessed at baseline, post-intervention and after 4 weeks follow-up. Results: No significant between-group differences were found for change scores in ARAT or any somatosensory measure between the three time points. For UL impairment (Fugl-Meyer assessment), a significant greater improvement was found for the motor group compared to the sensorimotor group from baseline to post-intervention [mean (SD) improvement 14.65 (2.19) vs. 5.99 (2.06); p = 0.01] and from baseline to follow-up [17.38 (2.37) vs. 6.75 (2.29); p = 0.003]. Conclusion: UL motor therapy may improve motor impairment more than UL sensorimotor therapy in patients with sensorimotor impairments in the early rehabilitation phase post stroke. For these patients, integrated sensorimotor therapy may not improve somatosensory function and may be less effective for motor recovery. Clinical Trial Registration: www.ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier NCT03236376.

Anxiety and depression in the first six months after stroke. A longitudinal multicentre study.

PURPOSE: To document the prevalence, severity and time course of anxiety and depression in stroke rehabilitation patients in four European countries. METHOD: At two, four and six months post-stroke, the prevalence and severity of anxiety and depression were determined in 532 consecutively recruited patients, using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. Time course of prevalence and severity was examined, using Cochran-Q and Friedman-tests, respectively. We identified whether the numbers of anxious/depressed patients at each time point comprised the same individuals. RESULTS: Prevalence of anxiety ranged between 22% and 25%; depression between 24% and 30%. Median severity ranged between 4 and 5. No significant differences between centres occurred (p > 0.05). Prevalence of both disorders was not significantly different over time. Severity of anxiety decreased between four and six months; severity of depression remained stable. About 40% of the patients with initial anxiety remained anxious at six months. Some 11% and 7% of those initially not anxious became anxious at four or six months after stroke, respectively. Depression showed a similar pattern. CONCLUSIONS: Despite differences in patient profiles and intensity of rehabilitation, no significant differences occurred between centres in prevalence and severity of both disorders. Anxiety was almost as common as depression and additional patients became anxious/depressed at each time point.

Effect of socioeconomic status on functional and motor recovery after stroke: a European multicentre study.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have shown an inverse gradient in socioeconomic status for disability after stroke. However, no distinction has been made between the period in the stroke rehabilitation unit (SRU) and the period after discharge. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of education and equivalent income on motor and functional recovery for both periods. METHODS: 419 consecutive patients were recruited from six SRUs across Europe. The Barthel Index (BI) and Rivermead Motor Assessment (RMA) were measured on admission, at discharge and 6 months after stroke. Ordinal logistic regression models were used, adjusting for case mix. Cumulative odds ratios (OR) were calculated to measure differences in recovery between educational levels and income groups with adjustments for case mix. RESULTS: Patients with a low educational level were less likely to improve on the BI (OR 0.53; 95% CI 0.32 to 0.87) and the RMA arm during inpatient stay (OR 0.54; 95% CI 0.31 to 0.94). For this period, no differences in recovery were found between income groups. After discharge, patients with a low equivalent income were less likely to improve on all three sections of the RMA: gross function (OR 0.20; 95% CI 0.06 to 0.66), leg and trunk (OR 0.22; 95% CI 0.09 to 0.55) and arm (OR 0.30; 95% CI 0.10 to 0.87). No differences were found for education. CONCLUSIONS: During inpatient rehabilitation, educational level was a determinant of recovery, while after discharge, equivalent income played an important role. This study suggests that it is important to develop a better understanding of how socioeconomic factors affect the recovery of stroke patients.

Inpatient stroke rehabilitation: a comparative study of admission criteria to stroke rehabilitation units in four European centres.

OBJECTIVE: To explore the clinical and non-clinical factors involved in decision-making concerning admission to European stroke rehabilitation units. DESIGN: Observational study on case-mix at intake combined with questionnaires and semi-structured interviews with the medical consultants of each European stroke rehabilitation unit. PATIENTS AND SETTINGS: Clinical data on 532 first-ever patients after stroke. Medical consultants from 6 European stroke rehabilitation units in 4 European countries (UK, Belgium, Germany and Switzerland). METHODS: Standardized clinical assessments within 2 days after admission. Questionnaires to each medical consultants followed by a qualitative round of semi-structured interviews. RESULTS: Case-mix of patients after stroke was significantly different between European stroke rehabilitation units. Clinical criteria for admission were seldom explicit and were evaluated differently between the European stroke rehabilitation units. In the UK units, diagnosis of stroke was the only criterion for admission. In the Belgian, German and Swiss units, pre-morbid conditions were taken into account in admission decisions. The likelihood of discharge home was considered highly important in the Swiss units. CONCLUSION: Case-mix differences at intake could be linked to different appraisals of clinical and non-clinical factors of patients after stroke. The findings urge us to be more explicit about decision-making processes at admission in order to provide a more comprehensive insight into the interplay between context and process of care.

A cross-sectional study comparing lateral and diagonal maximum weight shift in people with stroke and healthy controls and the correlation with balance, gait and fear of falling.

Impaired balance is common post stroke and can be assessed by means of force-platforms measuring center of pressure (COP) displacements during static standing, or more dynamically during lateral maximum weight shift (MWS). However, activities of daily life also include diagonal MWS and since force platforms are nowadays commercially available, investigating lateral and diagonal MWS in a clinical setting might be feasible and clinically relevant. We investigated lateral and diagonal MWS while standing in patients with stroke (PwS) and healthy controls (HC), evaluated MWS towards the affected and the non-affected side for PwS and correlated MWS with measures of balance, gait and fear of falling. In a cross-sectional observational study including 36 ambulatory sub-acute inpatients and 32 age-matched HC, a force platform (BioRescue, RM Ingénierie, France) was used to measure lateral and diagonal MWS in standing. Clinical outcome measures collected were Berg Balance Scale and Community Balance and Mobility Scale (CBMS) for balance, 10-meter walk test (10MWT) for gait speed and Falls Efficacy Scale-international version for fear of falling. MWS for PwS towards the affected side was significantly smaller compared to HC (lateral: p = 0.029; diagonal-forward: p = 0.000). MWS for PwS was also significantly reduced towards the affected side in the diagonal-forward direction (p = 0.019) compared to the non-affected side of PwS. Strong correlations were found for MWS for PwS in the diagonal-forward direction towards the affected side, and clinical measures of balance (CBMS: r = 0.66) and gait speed (10MWT: r = 0.66). Our study showed that ambulatory sub-acute PwS, in comparison to HC, have decreased ability to shift their body weight diagonally forward in standing towards their affected side. This reduced ability is strongly related to clinical measures of balance and gait speed. Our results suggest that MWS in a diagonal-forward direction should receive attention in rehabilitation of ambulatory sub-acute PwS in an inpatient setting.

Stroke rehabilitation in Europe: what do physiotherapists and occupational therapists actually do?

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Physiotherapy (PT) and occupational therapy (OT) are key components of stroke rehabilitation. Little is known about their content. This study aimed to define and compare the content of PT and OT for stroke patients between 4 European rehabilitation centers. METHODS: In each center, 15 individual PT and 15 OT sessions of patients fitting predetermined criteria were videotaped. The content was recorded using a list comprising 12 therapeutic categories. A generalized estimating equation model was fitted to the relative frequency of each category resulting in odds ratios. RESULTS: Comparison of PT and OT between centers revealed significant differences for only 2 of the 12 categories: ambulatory exercises and selective movements. Comparison of the 2 therapeutic disciplines on the pooled data of the 4 centers revealed that ambulatory exercises, transfers, exercises, and balance in standing and lying occurred significantly more often in PT sessions. Activities of daily living, domestic activities, leisure activities, and sensory, perceptual training, and cognition occurred significantly more often in OT sessions. CONCLUSIONS: This study revealed that the content of each therapeutic discipline was consistent between the 4 centers. PT and OT proved to be distinct professions with clear demarcation of roles.

Language processing in bilingual aphasia: a new insight into the problem.

There is increasing evidence that a bilingual person should not be considered as two monolinguals in a single body, a view that has gradually been adopted in the diagnosis and treatment of bilingual aphasia. However, its investigation is complicated due to the large variety in possible language combinations, pre- and postmorbid language proficiencies, and age of second language acquisition. Furthermore, the tests and tasks used to assess linguistic capabilities differ in almost every study, hindering a direct comparison of their outcomes. Behavioral, electrophysiological, and neuroimaging data from healthy population show that the processing of second language domains (semantics, syntax, morphology) depends on factors such as age and method of acquisition, proficiency level and environment in which the second language was acquired. A number of single and multiple case reports that rely on behavioral testing of bilingual aphasics replicate these results. Additionally, they show that the patient's performance depends on the size and location of the lesion, as well as language typology and morphological characteristics. Furthermore, the impairment and recovery patterns and recovery generalization from treated to untreated language depend on the lexical and orthographic distances between the two languages. For healthy bilinguals, language processing is usually studied in comparison to monolinguals. We advocate that a good starting point for identifying patterns specific for bilingual aphasia is to compare patient studies of bilinguals and monolinguals.

Determinants of cardiorespiratory fitness at 3, 6 and 12 months poststroke.

PURPOSE: To better delineate intervention programs, knowledge of the factors that are associated with physical fitness in stroke survivors is crucial. This study aimed to predict cardiorespiratory fitness based on standardized measures along the several dimensions of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) model at several time intervals in the first year after stroke. METHODS: Forty patients were assessed at 3, 6 and 12 months poststroke. A symptom-limited graded cycle ergometer test was used to assess cardiorespiratory fitness. Outcome variables were VO(2) peak and the Oxygen Uptake Efficiency Slope (OUES). Impairments, activity limitations, participation restrictions, personal and environmental factors were assessed to determine predictive factors. RESULTS: Explained variance at 3, 6 and 12 months poststroke was 39%, 55% and 91% for VO(2) peak and 55%, 63% and 79% for OUES. A strong association between knee muscle strength and cardiorespiratory fitness was found at each measurement time, explaining up to 72 % of the variance in fitness. At 12 months poststroke, functional mobility, body mass index (BMI) and emotional status also contributed to explain variance. CONCLUSIONS: Knee muscle strength was found to be a very strong predictor of cardiorespiratory fitness during the first year after stroke and functional mobility became important at 12 months poststroke.