Successful care transitions for older people: a systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of interventions that support medication continuity.

BACKGROUND: medication-related problems occur frequently when older patients are discharged from hospital. Interventions to support medication use have been developed; however, their effectiveness in older populations are unknown. This review evaluates interventions that support successful transitions of care through enhanced medication continuity. METHODS: a database search for randomised controlled trials was conducted. Selection criteria included mean participant age of 65 years and older, intervention delivered during hospital stay or following recent discharge and including activities that support medication continuity. Primary outcome of interest was hospital readmission. Secondary outcomes related to the safe use of medication and quality of life. Outcomes were pooled by random-effects meta-analysis where possible. RESULTS: twenty-four studies (total participants = 17,664) describing activities delivered at multiple time points were included. Interventions that bridged the transition for up to 90 days were more likely to support successful transitions. The meta-analysis, stratified by intervention component, demonstrated that self-management activities (RR 0.81 [0.74, 0.89]), telephone follow-up (RR 0.84 [0.73, 0.97]) and medication reconciliation (RR 0.88 [0.81, 0.96]) were statistically associated with reduced hospital readmissions. CONCLUSION: our results suggest that interventions that best support older patients' medication continuity are those that bridge transitions; these also have the greatest impact on reducing hospital readmission. Interventions that included self-management, telephone follow-up and medication reconciliation activities were most likely to be effective; however, further research needs to identify how to meaningfully engage with patients and caregivers to best support post-discharge medication continuity. Limitations included high subjectivity of intervention coding, study heterogeneity and resource restrictions.

Experience-based co-design-Adapting the method for a researcher-initiated study in a multi-site setting.

BACKGROUND: Experience-based co-design (EBCD) brings patients and staff together to co-design services. It is normally conducted in one organization which initiates and implements the process. We used the traditional EBCD method with a number of adaptations as part of a larger research study in the British National Health Service. METHODS: The primary aim was to assess the feasibility and acceptability of conducting research-initiated EBCD, to enhance intervention development prior to testing. As well as embedding the method in a research study, there were 3 further key adaptations: (a) working across primary and secondary care sectors, (b) working on multiple sites and (c) incorporating theory-informed analysis. RESULTS: We recruited four sites (covering both primary and secondary care) and, on each site, conducted the initial traditional EBCD meetings, with separate staff and patient groups-followed by a single joint patient-staff event, where four priority areas for co-design were agreed. This event was driven by theory-informed analysis, as well as the traditional trigger film of patient experiences. Each site worked on one priority area, and the four co-design groups met over 2-3 months to design prototype tools. A second joint event was held (not usually undertaken in single-site EBCD) where they shared and compared outputs. The research team combined elements of these outputs to create an intervention, now being tested in a cluster randomized controlled trial. CONCLUSIONS: EBCD can be successfully adapted for use across an entire patient pathway with multiple organizations and as part of a research process to identify an intervention for subsequent testing in a randomized trial. Our pragmatic approach used the patient experience to identify areas for improvement and co-designed an intervention which directly reflected patient priorities.

Stakeholder perspectives of care for people living with dementia moving from hospital to care facilities in the community: a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: People living with dementia in care homes are regularly admitted to hospital. The transition between hospitals and care homes is an area of documented poor care leading to adverse outcomes including costly re-hospitalisation. This review aims to understand the experiences and outcomes of care for people living with dementia who undergo this transition from the perspectives of key stakeholders; people living with dementia, their families and health care professionals. METHODS: A systematic search was conducted on the CINAHL, ASSIA, EMBASE, MEDLINE, PsychINFO, and Scopus databases without any date restrictions. We hand searched reference lists of included papers. Papers were included if they focused on people living with dementia moving from hospital to a short or long term care setting in the community including sub-acute, rehabilitation, skilled nursing facilities or care homes. Titles, abstracts and full texts were screened. Two authors independently evaluated study quality using a checklist. Themes were identified and discussed to reach consensus. RESULTS: In total, nine papers reporting eight studies met the inclusion criteria for the systematic review. A total of 257 stakeholders participated; 37 people living with dementia, 95 family members, and 125 health and social care professionals. Studies took place in Australia, Canada, United Kingdom (UK), and the United States of America (US). Four themes were identified as factors influencing the experience and outcomes of the transition from the perspectives of stakeholders; preparing for transition; quality of communication; the quality of care; family engagement and roles. CONCLUSION: This systematic review presents a compelling case for the need for robust evidence to guide best practice in this important area of multi-disciplinary clinical practice. The evidence suggests this transition is challenging for all stakeholders and that people with dementia have specific needs which need attention during this period. TRIAL REGISTRATION: PROSPERO Registration Number: CRD42017082041 .

Characterising the growth in palliative care prescribing 2011-2015: Analysis of national medical and non-medical activity.

BACKGROUND: The role of non-medical prescribers working in palliative care has been expanding in recent years and prescribers report improvements in patient care, patient safety, better use of health professionals' skills and more flexible team working. Despite this, there is a lack of empirical evidence to demonstrate its clinical and economic impact, limiting our understanding of the future role of non-medical prescribers within a healthcare system serving an increasing number of people with palliative care needs. AIM: We developed a unique methodology to establish the level of non-medical prescribers' activity in palliative care across England and consider the likely overall contribution these prescribers are making at a national level in this context in relation to medical prescribing. SETTING/PARTICIPANTS: All prescriptions for 10 core palliative care drugs prescribed by general practitioners, nurses and pharmacists in England and dispensed in the community between April 2011 and April 2015 were extracted from the Prescribing Analysis Cost Tool system. DESIGN: The data were broken down by prescriber and basic descriptive analysis of prescription frequencies by opioid, non-opioids and total prescriptions by year were undertaken. To evaluate the yearly growth of non-medical prescribers, the total number of prescriptions was compared by year for each prescribing group. RESULTS: Non-medical prescribers issued prescriptions rose by 28% per year compared to 9% in those issued by medical prescribers. Despite this, the annual growth in non-medical prescribers prescriptions was less than 1% a year in relation to total community palliative care prescribing activity in England. Impact on medical prescribing is therefore minimal.

Non-medical prescribing in palliative care: a regional survey.

BACKGROUND: The United Kingdom is considered to be the world leader in nurse prescribing, no other country having the same extended non-medical prescribing rights. Arguably, this growth has outpaced research to evaluate the benefits, particularly in areas of clinical practice where patients have complex co-morbid conditions such as palliative care. This is the first study of non-medical prescribing in palliative care in almost a decade. AIM: To explore the current position of nurse prescribing in palliative care and establish the impact on practice of the 2012 legislative changes. DESIGN: An online survey circulated during May and June 2013. PARTICIPANTS: Nurse members (n = 37) of a regional cancer network palliative care group (61% response rate). RESULTS: While this survey found non-medical prescribers have embraced the 2012 legislative changes and prescribe a wide range of drugs for cancer pain, we also identified scope to improve the transition from qualified to active non-medical prescriber by reducing the time interval between the two. CONCLUSION: To maximise the economic and clinical benefit of non-medical prescribing, the delay between qualifying as a prescriber and becoming an active prescriber needs to be reduced. Nurses who may be considering training to be a non-medical prescriber may be encouraged by the provision of adequate study leave and support to cover clinical work. Further research should explore the patients' perspective of non-medical prescribing.

Patients' valuation of the prescribing nurse in primary care: a discrete choice experiment.

BACKGROUND: Recently, primary care in the United Kingdom has undergone substantial changes in skill mix. Non-medical prescribing was introduced to improve patient access to medicines, make better use of different health practitioners' skills and increase patient choice. There is little evidence about value-based patient preferences for 'prescribing nurse' in a general practice setting. OBJECTIVE: To quantify value-based patient preferences for the profession of prescriber and other factors that influence choice of consultation for managing a minor illness. DESIGN: Discrete choice experiment patient survey. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Five general practices in England with non-medical prescribing services, questionnaires completed by 451 patients. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Stated choice of consultation. MAIN RESULTS: There was a strong general preference for consulting 'own doctor' for minor illness. However, a consultation with a nurse prescriber with positive patient-focused attributes can be more acceptable to patients than a consultation provided by a doctor. Attributes 'professional's attention to Patients' views' and extent of 'help offered' were pivotal. Past experience influenced preference. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: Respondents demonstrated valid preferences. Preferences for consulting a doctor remained strong, but many were happy to consult with a nurse if other aspects of the consultation were improved. Findings show who to consult is not the only valued factor in choice of consultation for minor illness. The 'prescribing nurse' role has potential to offer consultation styles that patients value. Within the study's limitations, these findings can inform delivery of primary care to enhance patient experience and substitute appropriate nurse prescribing consultations for medical prescribing consultations.

Survey of patients' experiences and perceptions of care provided by nurse and pharmacist independent prescribers in primary care.

BACKGROUND: In the United Kingdom, nurses and pharmacists who have undertaken additional post-registration training can prescribe medicines for any medical condition within their competence (non-medical prescribers, NMPs), but little is known about patients' experiences and perceptions of this service. OBJECTIVE: to obtain feedback from primary care patients on the impact of prescribing by nurse independent prescribers (NIPs) and pharmacist independent prescribers (PIPs) on experiences of the consultation, the patient-professional relationship, access to medicines, quality of care, choice, knowledge, patient-reported adherence and control of their condition. DESIGN: Two cross-sectional postal surveys. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Patients prescribed for by either NIPs or PIPs in six general practices from different regions in England. RESULTS: 30% of patients responded (294/975; 149/525 NIPs; 145/450 PIPs). Most said they were very satisfied with their last visit (94%; 87%), they were told as much as they wanted to know about their medicines (88%; 80%), and felt the independent prescriber really understood their point of view (87%; 75%). They had a good relationship with (89%; 79%) and confidence in (84%; 77%) their NMP. When comparing NMP and doctor prescribing services, most patients reported no difference in their experience of care provided, including access to it, control of condition, support for adherence, quality and safety of care. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Patients had positive perceptions and experience from their NMP visit. NMPs were well received, and patients' responses indicated the establishment of rapport. They did not express a strong preference for care provided by either their non-medical or medical prescriber.

Safety and quality of nurse independent prescribing: a national study of experiences of education, continuing professional development clinical governance.

AIM: To determine the adequacy of initial nurse independent prescribing education and identify continuing professional development and clinical governance strategies in place for non-medical prescribing. BACKGROUND: In 2006, new legislation in England enabled nurses with an independent prescribing qualification to prescribe, within their competence. In 2006, non-medical prescribing policies released by the Department of Health outlined the recommendations for education, continuing professional development and governance of non-medical prescribing; however, there was no evidence on a national scale about the extent of implementation and effectiveness of these strategies. DESIGN: National surveys of: (i) nurse independent prescribers; and (ii) non-medical prescribing leaders in England. METHODS: Questionnaire surveys (August 2008-February 2009) covering educational preparation, prescribing practice (nurse independent prescribers) and structures/processes for support and governance (non-medical prescribing leaders). RESULTS: Response rates were 65% (976 prescribers) and 52% (87 leaders). Most nurses felt their prescribing course met their learning needs and stated course outcomes and that they had adequate development and support for prescribing to maintain patient safety. Some types of community nurse prescribers had less access to support and development. The prescribing leaders reported lacking systems to ensure continuity of non-medical prescribing and monitoring patient experience. CONCLUSION: Educational programmes of preparation for nurse prescribing were reported to be operating satisfactorily and providing fit-for-purpose preparation for the expansion to the scope of nurse independent prescribing. Most clinical governance and risk management strategies for prescribing were in place in primary and secondary care.

Medication reviews.

Recent years have seen a formalization of medication review by pharmacists in all settings of care. This article describes the different types of medication review provided in primary care in the UK National Health Service (NHS), summarizes the evidence of effectiveness and considers how such reviews might develop in the future. Medication review is, at heart, a diagnostic intervention which aims to identify problems for action by the prescriber, the clinician conducting the review, the patient or all three but can also be regarded as an educational intervention to support patient knowledge and adherence. There is good evidence that medication review improves process outcomes of prescribing including reduced polypharmacy, use of more appropriate medicines formulation and more appropriate choice of medicine. When 'harder' outcome measures have been included, such as hospitalizations or mortality in elderly patients, available evidence indicates that whilst interventions could improve knowledge and adherence they did not reduce mortality or hospital admissions with one study showing an increase in hospital admissions. Robust health economic studies of medication reviews remain rare. However a review of cost-effectiveness analyses of medication reviews found no studies in which the cost of the intervention was greater than the benefit. The value of medication reviews is now generally accepted despite lack of robust research evidence consistently demonstrating cost or clinical effectiveness compared with traditional care. Medication reviews can be more effectively deployed in the future by targeting, multi-professional involvement and paying greater attention to medicines which could be safely stopped.

Prescribing and partnership with patients.

There have been widespread changes in society and the roles of professionals. This change is also reflected in health care, where there is now acceptance of the need to involve patients in decision making. In prescribing specifically, the concordance agenda was developed alongside these initiatives to encourage improved medication taking and reduce wastage. However the extent to which these partnerships are delivered in practice remains unclear. This paper explores some of the issues to be considered when preparing patients and professionals for partnership and summarizes the limited evidence of barriers to, and benefits of, this approach. Firstly patients must be given the confidence, skills and knowledge to be partners. They need information about medicines, provided in ways known to be acceptable to them. Likewise professionals may need new skills to be partners. They need to understand the patient agenda and may need training and support to change the ways in which they consult with patients. There are also practical issues such as the perceived increase in time taken when consulting in partnership mode, room layout, computer interfaces and record keeping. Health care professionals other than doctors are also expected to behave in partnership mode, whether this is as prescribers in their own right or in supporting the prescribing of others. Whilst much has been claimed for the benefit of partnership approaches, hard evidence is limited. However whilst there is still much more to understand there will be no going back to the paternalistic model of the mid 20th century.

Valuing the extended role of prescribing pharmacist in general practice: results from a discrete choice experiment.

OBJECTIVES: To quantify patients' preferences for new pharmacist independent prescribing services in general practice for managing common existing long-term conditions compared with usual medical prescribing. METHODS: A discrete choice experiment cross-sectional survey was conducted in five general practices in England (October-November 2009). Four service attributes reported on the length of consultation and aspects of patient-professional interaction. A choice between three alternatives-novel pharmacist independent prescribing service ("prescribing pharmacist"), "own (family) doctor" service, and "available (family) doctor" service-was presented. Alternative regression models were compared according to their goodness of fit, and the preferred one was used to inform policy analysis. RESULTS: A total of 451 patients completed questionnaires. Respondents preferred a "pharmacist" or "own doctor" compared with "available doctor," with a larger value given to own doctor. All attributes on patient-professional interaction were important in choosing how to manage diagnosed hypertension, while the "length of consultation" (P = 0.42) did not have any impact. The impact of introducing a pharmacist prescribing service into a general practice setting was estimated from these findings. Patients' preferences suggested that about 16% of consultations with a patient's own doctor can be switched to a prescribing pharmacist instead. Although there is a stronger preference for seeing own doctor, alternative combinations of attribute levels can be used to compensate and reconfigure a more preferred prescribing pharmacist service. CONCLUSIONS: The pharmacist service is valued by patients as an alternative to doctor prescribing in primary care and therefore represents an acceptable form of service delivery when informing policy.

Development, validation and application of a patient satisfaction scale for a community pharmacy medicines-management service.

OBJECTIVE: To develop, validate and apply a scale to measure patient satisfaction in a randomised controlled trial of community pharmacy service. METHODS: Published scales were reviewed to inform development of the patient satisfaction scale. Questionnaires were sent to patients in the control (n=500) and intervention (n=941) groups of a randomised controlled trial of community pharmacy-led management of coronary heart disease at baseline and 12-month follow-up. Any underlying main factors were assessed with exploratory factor analysis. Reliability and construct validity were tested. The 15-item scale was used to compare patient satisfaction across arms with their most recent pharmacy visit. RESULTS: Response rates were 92% (461/500) for control and 96% (903/941) for intervention groups at baseline and 85% control (399/472) and intervention (810/941) at follow-up. At baseline satisfaction was very similar in the intervention and control groups (median scores of 42). At follow-up mean satisfaction had significantly improved for the intervention compared with the control (median scores of 46 compared with 43; P<0.01); intervention females were more likely to be satisfied with the service than males (49 compared with 44; P<0.01). Three main factors explained the majority of the data variance. Cronbach's alpha was 0.7-0.9 for both groups over time for all factors and total scale. An increase in the overall satisfaction corresponding to a decrease in subjects wanting that particular service to be provided during their next visit indicated construct validity of the scale. CONCLUSION: A new scale of patient satisfaction with community pharmacy services was developed and shown to be reliable and valid. Its application showed increased satisfaction in the intervention group receiving a new pharmacy service.

The feasibility of providing community pharmacy-based services for alcohol misuse: a literature review.

OBJECTIVES: Excessive consumption of alcohol is a major public health concern. The use of community pharmacies and pharmacists as sources of public health information and services is gaining greater recognition. The objective of this review was to provide an overview of the evidence on the feasibility, effectiveness and acceptability of providing community pharmacy-based services to address the excessive consumption of alcohol. METHODS: Electronic databases were searched for the period 1996-2007 to identify relevant evidence. Searches were also conducted of relevant pharmacy and addiction journals. Information was sought from key contacts in pharmacy and alcohol research. Studies were included if they were conducted in a community pharmacy setting. KEY FINDINGS: The review comprised three feasibility studies which included 14 pharmacies and 500 customers. Non-significant reductions in alcohol consumption were reported with two studies following brief interventions by pharmacists. Between 30% and 53% of pharmacy customers were identified as having hazardous or harmful drinking behaviour. Customer opinion of the pharmacy-based alcohol services was not reported. CONCLUSIONS: There has been little empirical evaluation of the effectiveness of community pharmacy-based services for alcohol misuse. The evidence presented in this review suggests that community pharmacy-based screening is feasible. Organisations and individuals involved with tackling excessive alcohol consumption should consider the inclusion of community pharmacies and pharmacists as part of their strategies to address this problem. Large-scale studies are needed to evaluate the short- and long-term effects and cost-effectiveness of community pharmacy-based interventions to reduce excessive alcohol consumption, as well as to explore the acceptability of the service to

A community pharmacist medicines optimisation service for patients with advanced cancer pain: a proof of concept study.

Background Patients with advanced cancer commonly experience pain and it is least controlled in community settings. Community pharmacists in the UK already offer medicines optimisation consultations although not for this patient group. Objective To determine whether medicines consultations for patients with advanced cancer pain are feasible and acceptable. Setting Community-dwelling patients with advanced cancer pain were recruited from primary, secondary and tertiary care using purposive sampling in one UK city. Methods One face-to-face or two telephone delivered medicines optimisation consultations by pharmacists were tested. These were based on services currently delivered in UK community pharmacies. Feedback was obtained from patients and healthcare professionals involved to assess feasibility and acceptability. Main outcome measure Recruitment, acceptability and drug related problems. Results Twenty-three patients, (range 33-88 years) were recruited, 19 completed consultation(s) of whom 17 were receiving palliative care services. Five received face-to-face consultations and 14 by telephone during which 47 drug related problems were identified from 33 consultations (mean 2.5). Advice was provided for 34 drug related problems in 17 patients and referral to other healthcare professionals for 13 in 8 patients, 2 patients had none. Eleven patients returned questionnaires of which 8 (73%) would recommend the consultations to others. Conclusion The consultations were feasible as patients were recruited, retained, consultations delivered, and data collected. Patients found the 20-30 min intervention acceptable, found a self-perceived increase in medicines knowledge and most would recommend it to others. Community pharmacists were willing to carry out these services however they had confidence issues in accessing working knowledge. Most drug related problems were resolved by the pharmacists and even among patients receiving palliative care services there were still issues concerning analgesic management. Pharmacist-conducted medicines consultations demonstrate potential which now needs to be evaluated within a larger study in the future.

Cardiology patients' medicines management networks after hospital discharge: A mixed methods analysis of a complex adaptive system.

INTRODUCTION: The complex healthcare system that provides patients with medicines places them at risk when care is transferred between healthcare organisations, for example discharge from hospital. Consequently, understanding and improving medicines management, particularly at care transfers, is a priority. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to explore the medicines management system as patients experience it and determine differences in the patient-perceived importance of people in the system. METHODS: We used a Social Network Analysis framework, collecting ego-net data about the importance of people patients had contact with concerning their medicines after hospital discharge. Single- and multi-level logistic regression models of patients' networks were constructed, and model residuals were explored at the patient level. This enabled us to identify patients' networks with support tie patterns different from the general patterns suggested by the model results. Qualitative data for those patients were then analysed to understand their differing experiences. RESULTS: Networks comprised clinical and administrative healthcare staff and friends and family members. Networks were highly individual and the perceived importance of alters varied both within and between patients. Ties to spouses were significantly more likely to be rated as highly important and ties to community pharmacy staff (other than pharmacists) and to GP receptionists were less likely to be highly rated. Patients with low-value medicines management networks described having limited information about their medicines and a lack of understanding or help. Patients with high-value networks described appreciating support and having confidence in staff. CONCLUSIONS: Patients experienced medicines management as individual systems within which they interacted with healthcare staff and informal support to manage their treatment. Multilevel models indicated that there are unexplained variables impacting on patients' assessments of their medicines management networks. Qualitative exploration of the model residuals can offer an understanding of networks that do not have the typical range of support ties.

Evaluating recruitment methods of patients with advanced cancer: a pragmatic opportunistic comparison.

BACKGROUND: Recruitment of patients with advanced cancer into studies is challenging. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate recruitment methods in a study of pharmacist-led cancer pain medicine consultations and produce recommendations for future studies. METHOD: Two methods of recruitment were employed: (1) community-based (general practitioner computer search, identification by general practitioner, community pharmacist or district nurse and hospital outpatient list search) and (2) hospice-based (in and outpatient list search). Patients identified in method 1 were invited by post and in method 2 were invited face-to-face. Information was designed in collaboration with patients and carers. RESULTS: A total of 128 patients were identified (85 from the community and 43 from the hospice), and 47 met the inclusion criteria. Twenty-three agreed to take part and 19 completed the study, 17 of whom were already under specialist palliative care. Recruitment rates were 7% for community-based methods and 40% for hospice. The recruitment methods differed in intensity of resource use. Recruitment via letter and a lack of engagement by healthcare professionals were found to be barriers. Facilitators included the researcher having personal involvement in recruitment. CONCLUSION: The overall recruitment rate was in line with other studies for this patient cohort. Attempts to identify and engage patients through community-based postal contact were less effective than where personal contact with patients was both possible and occurred. Methods were less successful at recruiting patients who were not already engaged with hospice services.

How timely is access to palliative care medicines in the community? A mixed methods study in a UK city.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate timely access to palliative medicines/drugs (PMs) from community pharmacies to inform palliative care service delivery. DESIGN: Mixed methods in two sequential phases: (1) prospective audit of prescriptions and concurrent survey of patients/representatives collecting PMs from pharmacy and (2) interviews with community pharmacists (CPs) and other healthcare professionals (HCPs). SETTING: Five community pharmacies in Sheffield, UK and HCPs that deliver palliative care in that community. PARTICIPANTS: Phase 1: five CPs: two providing access to PMs within a locally commissioned service (LCS) and three not in the LCS; 55 patients/representatives who completed the survey when accessing PMs and phase 2: 16 HCPs, including five phase 1 CPs, were interviewed. RESULTS: The prescription audit collected information on 75 prescriptions (75 patients) with 271 individual PMs; 55 patients/representatives (73%) completed the survey. Patients/representatives reported 73% of PMs were needed urgently. In 80% of cases, patients/representatives received all PMs on the first pharmacy visit. One in five had to travel to more than one pharmacy to access PMs. The range of PMs stocked by pharmacies was the key facilitating factor. CPs reported practical issues causing difficulty keeping PMs in stock and playing a reactive role with palliative prescriptions. Confidentiality concerns were cited by other HCPs who were reluctant to share key patient information proactively with pharmacy teams. Inadequate information transfer, lack of CP integration into the care of palliative patients and poor HCP knowledge of which pharmacies stock PMs meant patients and their families were not always able to access PMs promptly. CONCLUSIONS: Consistent routine information transfer and integration of pharmacy teams in the care of palliative patients are needed to achieve timely access to PMs. Commissioners of PM access schemes should review and monitor access. HCPs need to be routinely made aware and reminded about the service and its locations.

Pharmacist educational interventions for cancer pain management: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVES: Educational interventions by pharmacists for patients with cancer pain aim to improve pain management, but little is known about the different components of interventions and their effectiveness. Our aim was to assess the benefit of pharmacist delivered educational interventions for patients with cancer pain. A systematic review and meta-analysis of experimental trials testing pharmacist delivered educational interventions for cancer pain was carried out to identify the components of interventions and effectiveness at improving pain-related outcomes for patients with cancer. A literature review was conducted in EMBASE, MEDLINE, CINAHL, PsycINFO, ASSIA, Web of Science and CENTRAL from inception until January 2018 searching for educational interventions involving a pharmacist for patients with cancer pain. Four studies were included involving 944 patients. Meta-analysis was carried out where possible. KEY FINDINGS: Meta-analysis of three of the four studies found that mean pain intensity in the intervention group was reduced by 0.76 on a 0-10 scale (95% confidence interval), although only two of the studies used validated measures of pain. Improvements in knowledge, side effects and patient satisfaction were seen although with less reliable measures. SUMMARY: Pharmacist educational interventions for patients with cancer pain have been found to show promise in reducing pain intensity. Studies were few and of varying quality. Further, good quality studies should be carried out in this area and these should be comprehensively reported. Trials measuring patient self-efficacy and patient satisfaction are needed before the impact of the pharmacist delivered interventions on these outcomes can be established.

Gaps, traps, bridges and props: a mixed-methods study of resilience in the medicines management system for patients with heart failure at hospital discharge.

INTRODUCTION: Poor medicines management places patients at risk, particularly during care transitions. For patients with heart failure (HF), optimal medicines management is crucial to control symptoms and prevent hospital readmission. This study explored the concept of resilience using HF as an example condition to understand how the system compensates for known and unknown weaknesses. METHODS: We explored resilience using a mixed-methods approach in four healthcare economies in the north of England. Data from hospital site observations, healthcare staff and patient interviews, and documentary analysis were collected between June 2016 and March 2017. Data were synthesised and analysed using framework analysis. RESULTS: Interviews were conducted with 45 healthcare professionals, with 20 patients at three time points and 189 hours of observation were undertaken. We identified four primary inter-related themes concerning organisational resilience. These were named as gaps, traps, bridges and props. Gaps were discontinuities in processes that had the potential to result in poorly optimised medicines. Traps were features of the system that could produce errors or unintended adverse medication events. Bridges were features of the medicines management system that promoted safety and continuity which ensured that, despite varying conditions, care could be delivered successfully. Props were informal, temporary or impromptu actions taken by patients or healthcare staff to avoid potential adverse events. CONCLUSION: The numerous opportunities for HF patient safety to be compromised and for suboptimal medicines management during this common care transition are mitigated by system resilience. Cross-organisational bridges and temporary fixes or 'props' put in place by patients and carers, healthcare teams and organisations are critical for safe and optimal care to be delivered in the face of continued system pressures.

A qualitative study of patient involvement in medicines management after hospital discharge: an under-recognised source of systems resilience.

INTRODUCTION: There are risks to the safety of medicines management when patient care is transferred between healthcare organisations, for example, when a patient is discharged from hospital. Using the theoretical concept of resilience in healthcare, this study aimed to better understand the proactive role that patients can play in creating safer, resilient medicines management at a common transition of care. METHODS: Qualitative interviews with 60 cardiology patients 6 weeks after their discharge from 2 UK hospitals explored patients' experiences with their discharge medicines. Data were initially subjected to an inductive thematic analysis and a subsequent theory-guided deductive analysis. RESULTS: During interviews 23 patients described medicines management resilience strategies in two main themes: identifying system vulnerabilities; and establishing self-management strategies. Patients could anticipate problems in the system that supplied them with medicines and took specific actions to prevent them. They also identified when errors had occurred both before and after medicines had been supplied and took corrective action to avoid harm. Some reported how they had not foreseen problems or experienced patient safety incidents. Patients recounted how they ensured information about medicines changes was correctly communicated and acted upon, and described their strategies to enhance their own reliability in adherence and resource management. CONCLUSION: Patients experience the impact of vulnerabilities in the medicines management system across the secondary-primary care transition but many are able to enhance system resilience through developing strategies to reduce the risk of medicines errors occurring. Consequently, there are opportunities-with caveats-to elicit, develop and formalise patients' capabilities which would contribute to safer patient care and more effective medicines management.