Monitoring urban beaches with qPCR vs. culture measures of fecal indicator bacteria: Implications for public notification.

BACKGROUND: The United States Environmental Protection Agency has established methods for testing beach water using the rapid quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) method, as well as "beach action values" so that the results of such testing can be used to make same-day beach management decisions. Despite its numerous advantages over culture-based monitoring approaches, qPCR monitoring has yet to become widely used in the US or elsewhere. Considering qPCR results obtained on a given day as the best available measure of that day's water quality, we evaluated the frequency of correct vs. incorrect beach management decisions that are driven by culture testing. METHODS: Beaches in Chicago, USA, were monitored using E. coli culture and enterococci qPCR methods over 894 beach-days in the summers of 2015 and 2016. Agreement in beach management using the two methods, after taking into account agreement due to chance, was summarized using Cohen's kappa statistic. RESULTS: No meaningful agreement (beyond that expected by chance) was observed between beach management actions driven by the two pieces of information available to beach managers on a given day: enterococci qPCR results ofsamples collected that morning and E. coli culture results of samples collected the previous day. The E. coli culture beach action value was exceeded 3.4 times more frequently than the enterococci qPCR beach action value (22.6 vs. 6.6% of beach-days). CONCLUSIONS: The largest evaluation of qPCR-based beach monitoring to date provides little scientific rationale for continued E. coli culture testing of beach water in our setting. The observation that the E. coli culture beach action value was exceeded three times as frequently as the enterococci qPCR beach action value suggests that, although the beach action values for bacteria using different measurement methods are thought to provide comparable information about health risk, this does not appear to be the case in all settings.

Prototypic automated continuous recreational water quality monitoring of nine Chicago beaches.

Predictive empirical modeling is used in many locations worldwide as a rapid, alternative recreational water quality management tool to eliminate delayed notifications associated with traditional fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) culturing (referred to as the persistence model, PM) and to prevent errors in releasing swimming advisories. The goal of this study was to develop a fully automated water quality management system for multiple beaches using predictive empirical models (EM) and state-of-the-art technology. Many recent EMs rely on samples or data collected manually, which adds to analysis time and increases the burden to the beach manager. In this study, data from water quality buoys and weather stations were transmitted through cellular telemetry to a web hosting service. An executable program simultaneously retrieved and aggregated data for regression equations and calculated EM results each morning at 9:30 AM; results were transferred through RSS feed to a website, mapped to each beach, and received by the lifeguards to be posted at the beach. Models were initially developed for five beaches, but by the third year, 21 beaches were managed using refined and validated modeling systems. The adjusted R(2) of the regressions relating Escherichia coli to hydrometeorological variables for the EMs were greater than those for the PMs, and ranged from 0.220 to 0.390 (2011) and 0.103 to 0.381 (2012). Validation results in 2013 revealed reduced predictive capabilities; however, three of the originally modeled beaches showed improvement in 2013 compared to 2012. The EMs generally showed higher accuracy and specificity than those of the PMs, and sensitivity was low for both approaches. In 2012 EM accuracy was 70-97%; specificity, 71-100%; and sensitivity, 0-64% and in 2013 accuracy was 68-97%; specificity, 73-100%; and sensitivity 0-36%. Factors that may have affected model capabilities include instrument malfunction, non-point source inputs, and sparse calibration data. The modeling system developed is the most extensive, fully-automated system for recreational water quality developed to date. Key insights for refining and improving large-scale empirical models for beach management have been developed through this multi-year effort.

Recreational water quality response to a filtering barrier at a Great Lakes beach.

Recent research has sought to determine the off- or onshore origin of fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) in order to improve local recreational water quality. In an effort to reduce offshore contamination, a filtering barrier (FB) was installed at Calumet Beach, Lake Michigan, Chicago, IL. A horseshoe-shaped curtain (146 m long, 0.18 mm apparent opening size, 1.5-1.6 m deepest point) was designed to exclude FIB containing or promoting debris and thus reduce the number of swimming advisories during the examination period of July through September 2012. Mean water Escherichia coli concentrations were significantly lower at southern transects (S; outside FB) than at transects within the FB (WN) and at northern transects (N; outside FB) (1.45 log (MPN)/100 ml vs. 1.74 and 1.72, respectively, p < 0.05, n = 234). Turbidity was significantly higher at the WN transects (p < 0.001, n = 233), but it tended to increase throughout the sampling season within and outside the FB. E. coli in adjacent foreshore sand was significantly lower at the WN transects. A combination of factors might explain higher E. coli and turbidity within the FB including increased sediment resuspension, trapped algae, shallowing within the FB, and large lake hydrodynamic processes. This remediation approach may find better use in a different hydrodynamic setting, but the results of this experiment provide insight on sources of contamination and nearshore dynamics that may direct future beach management strategies.