RETROSPECTIVE HEMATOLOGY AND SERUM BIOCHEMISTRY OF RING-TAILED LEMURS (LEMUR CATTA) ON ST. CATHERINES ISLAND, GEORGIA, USA.

Annual health records were retrospectively analyzed for a colony of ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) inhabiting St. Catherines Island, Georgia, USA to establish baseline hematological and serum biochemical parameters and determine sex- and age-related differences. Summarized complete blood count and serum biochemistry panel results are presented for 85 blood samples collected from 54 lemurs at annual health exams during 1998-2003. Within each of four age classes (infant, <1 yr; juvenile, 1-5 yr; adult, ≥ 6 yr), data were stratified and summarized based on sex. Lemur age was a significant positive predictor of mean corpuscular hemoglobin; absolute concentrations of neutrophils, monocytes, and band cells; serum concentrations of blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, globulins, lipase, and total protein; and gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) activity. Lemur age was a significant negative predictor of albumin:globulins ratio; alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity; and serum concentrations of calcium, cholesterol, glucose, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, and triglycerides. Neutrophil proportions increased with aging and lymphocyte proportions decreased with aging, particularly in females. Recent steep population declines of wild ring-tailed lemurs make their successful husbandry and medical care an increasingly pressing concern. These biomedical data will aid in clinical diagnosis and treatment of lemurs in human care, and support conservation efforts for this species.

SURVEY OF GERIATRIC ELEPHANT MEDICAL CARE, NUTRITION, HUSBANDRY, AND WELFARE.

Improvements in husbandry, veterinary care, and nutrition have led to increased longevity of animals in human care, including elephants. The goal of this study was to collect and synthesize information pertaining to geriatric elephant medicine, management, husbandry, and nutrition. An electronic survey was created and distributed to American Association of Zoo Veterinarians members through an online link. A total of 61 responses were received from veterinarians, nutritionists, and elephant managers with data encompassing 314 elephants, of which 142 were geriatric (over 40 years old) and 51 were on their final set of molars. Following the initial survey, willing respondents were contacted for follow-up interviews. Osteoarthritis, foot disease, and colic were the most commonly reported diseases, and flunixin meglumine and phenylbutazone were the analgesics most often used. Respondents described diseases treated, husbandry changes specific for older animals, welfare assessments and quality of life monitoring, nutritional modifications for dental attrition, a variety of integrative medicine modalities, and unique cases. It is the hope that the information identified in this study can be used to improve treatment, management practices, and overall welfare for geriatric elephants.

DISTAL LIMB SWELLING AND PERIOSTEAL PRODUCTIVE REACTION IN PERIPARTURIENT SICHUAN TAKIN (BUDORCAS TAXICOLOR TIBETANA): FIVE CASES OF PRESUMPTIVE HYPERTROPHIC OSTEOPATHY.

Hypertrophic osteopathy, a syndrome characterized by painful distal limb swelling and proliferative periosteal reaction, primarily involves the metacarpal and metatarsal bones and phalanges. Lesions are often bilaterally symmetric and typically affect all four limbs. Hypertrophic osteopathy is frequently associated with primary intrathoracic disease, though this condition has also been reported secondary to intra-abdominal and intrapelvic disease and associated with pregnancy in both people and horses. Over a 20-yr period, five adult female Sichuan takin (Budorcas taxicolor tibetana), with 13 total pregnancies, were evaluated because of lameness and distal limb swelling. These clinical signs were observed between 2 and 32 days (mean = 19 days) prior to parturition (gestation period in takin approximately 200-240 days) and resolved in all animals following parturition. Lameness and limb swelling resolved between 8 and 168 days (median = 15 days) after parturition. Sixteen radiographic examinations, from four of the individuals, documented proliferative periosteal reaction, primarily of the metacarpal bones, metatarsal bones, and phalanges. The clinical progression, resolution of signs, and radiographic features in these cases are consistent with hypertrophic osteopathy, secondary to pregnancy. This is the first report describing presumptive hypertrophic osteopathy in takin.

Development of an avian brachial plexus nerve block technique for perioperative analgesia in mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos).

Surgical procedures of the wing are commonly performed in companion, captive, and wild avian species. To develop a clinically applicable brachial plexus nerve block technique for perioperative analgesia in birds, 8 adult female mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) were anesthetized and used in several local anesthetic trials with bupivacaine (2 or 8 mg/kg) or a combination of lidocaine (15 mg/kg) and epinephrine (3.8 microg/kg) perineurally; equal volumes of saline were administered as control treatments. Both axillary and dorsal approaches to the brachial plexus were evaluated. With the axillary approach, radial and ulnar compound nerve action potentials (CNAP), sensory nerve conduction velocities (SNCVs), and cord dorsum potentials (CDPs) were recorded after distal sensory nerve stimulation. Values were recorded before and at 5, 30, and 60 minutes after injection of local anesthetic or saline. Birds were monitored for the presence of a wing droop and a change in motor function on recovery from anesthesia. Results were highly variable for all techniques. No technique significantly decreased CDPs or resulted in consistent wing droop. Radial and ulnar CNAPs, SNCVs, and CDPs were consistently recorded in all birds. Variable results might indicate that the treatment, concentration, or volume of local anesthetic used was ineffective in producing local anesthesia. Electrodiagnostic methods used in these ducks to assess loss of sensory nerve conduction might not be sensitive enough to assess the effects of local anesthesia. Further research is needed to identify methods for assessing the efficacy of brachial plexus nerve blockade in birds.

Rhabditid nematode-associated ophthalmitis and meningoencephalomyelitis in captive Asian horned frogs (Megophrys montana).

Between 2006 and 2008, 4 captive Asian horned frogs (Megophrys montana) were diagnosed with ocular and neurologic disease associated with rhabditid nematodiasis. Mortality, either spontaneous or by humane euthanasia, was high (3/4, 75%). Gross and histologic findings included varying degrees of ulcerative keratitis, histiocytic uveitis and retinitis, meningoencephalomyelitis, and epidermal chromatophore (iridophore) hyperplasia with intralesional nematodes. Entry into the host was presumed to be by direct invasion of the skin and the cornea with migration through the optic nerve to the brain and spinal cord. One frog was diagnosed with rhabditid nematodiasis antemortem, and clinical signs and lesions in the frog did not progress after unilateral enucleation and anthelminthic treatment were completed. Gross and tissue morphology of the nematodes were consistent with the order Rhabditida. DNA was extracted separately from 2 individual nematodes that were isolated from frozen and ethanol-preserved eye and brain tissue. These DNA templates were used for polymerase chain reaction amplification and sequencing of nuclear 28S large subunit (LSU) and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) ribosomal DNA regions. Comparison of the LSU and ITS sequences to those deposited in GenBank revealed an exact match for Caenorhabditis elegans.

Somatosensory evoked potentials and sensory nerve conduction velocities in the thoracic limb of mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos).

OBJECTIVE: To develop a clinically applicable technique for recording cord dorsum potentials (CDPs) following stimulation of the radial and ulnar nerves and establish reference values for radial and ulnar sensory nerve conduction velocities (SNCVs) in the wings of ducks. ANIMALS: 8 clinically normal adult female mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos). PROCEDURES: Radial and ulnar compound nerve action potentials (CNAPs) and CDPs were recorded following distal sensory nerve stimulation. The CDPs were recorded from the interarcuate space between the last cervical vertebra and the first thoracic vertebra. Surgical dissection and transection of the brachial plexus in 1 anesthetized duck were performed to identify nerve root location and confirm functional loss of nerve conduction assessed by loss of the CDP. RESULTS: Radial and ulnar CNAPs and CDPs were consistently recorded in all birds. Median radial SNCV was 38.3 m/s (range, 36.0 to 49.0 m/s), and ulnar SNCV was 35.3 m/s (range, 28.0 to 40.0 m/s). Surgical transection of the brachial plexus resulted in complete loss of the CDP. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Measurement of radial and ulnar SNCV or CDP is feasible in isoflurane-anesthetized mallard ducks. The CDP accurately reflects sensory nerve conduction through the brachial plexus. Assessment of brachial plexus function in mallard ducks via evaluations of SNCVs and CDPs may have application for diagnosis of traumatic injuries to the brachial plexus, evaluation of neuropathies associated with exposure to toxic chemicals, and assessment of the efficacy of interventions such as brachial plexus nerve blockade.

Animal Welfare in Conservation Breeding: Applications and Challenges.

Animal welfare and conservation breeding have overlapping and compatible goals that are occasionally divergent. Efforts to improve enclosures, provide enriching experiences, and address behavioral and physical needs further the causes of animal welfare in all zoo settings. However, by mitigating stress, increasing behavioral competence, and enhancing reproduction, health, and survival, conservation breeding programs must also focus on preparing animals for release into the wild. Therefore, conservation breeding facilities must strike a balance of promoting high welfare, while minimizing the effects of captivity to increase population sustainability. As part of the Hawaii Endangered Bird Conservation Program, San Diego Zoo Global operates two captive breeding facilities that house a number of endangered Hawaiian bird species. At our facilities we aim to increase captive animal welfare through husbandry, nutrition, behavior-based enrichment, and integrated veterinary practices. These efforts help foster a captive environment that promotes the development of species-typical behaviors. By using the "Opportunities to Thrive" guiding principles, we outline an outcome-based welfare strategy, and detail some of the related management inputs, such as transitioning to parental rearing, and conducting veterinary exams remotely. Throughout we highlight our evidence-based approach for evaluating our practices, by monitoring welfare and the effectiveness of our inputs. Additionally we focus on some of the unique challenges associated with improving welfare in conservation breeding facilitates and outline concrete future steps for improving and evaluating welfare outcomes that also meet conservation goals.

Concurrent West Nile virus and mycobacterium avium infection in a black-necked swan (Cygnus melanocoryphus).

An adult male black-necked swan (Cygnus melanocoryphus) was evaluated for a routine physical examination and West Nile virus vaccination. Nine days later, the swan was hospitalized for weakness, dehydration, tremors, and leukocytosis. Gradual clinical improvement was seen over a 2-wk course of supportive care. However, the animal became acutely weak and was found dead. Histopathology revealed severe granulomatous pneumonia and air sacculitis with dissemination to the liver, spleen, intestine, and coelom. Mycobacterial infection was confirmed by identification of acid-fast bacilli within tissue sections and by polymerase chain reaction. Concurrent West Nile virus infection was identified in sections of brain by using immunohistochemistry.

Health survey of wild and captive bog turtles (Clemmys muhlenbergii) in North Carolina and Virginia.

Blood samples, fecal samples, and cloacal swabs were collected from 42 bog turtles (Clemmys muhlenbergii). including 14 wild males, 22 wild females, three captive males, and three captive females, in Virginia and North Carolina, USA. Samples were analyzed for hematologic and plasma chemistry values, Mycoplasma sp. antibodies, intestinal parasites, and normal cloacal flora.