The hagfish genome and the evolution of vertebrates.

As the only surviving lineages of jawless fishes, hagfishes and lampreys provide a crucial window into early vertebrate evolution1-3. Here we investigate the complex history, timing and functional role of genome-wide duplications4-7 and programmed DNA elimination8,9 in vertebrates in the light of a chromosome-scale genome sequence for the brown hagfish Eptatretus atami. Combining evidence from syntenic and phylogenetic analyses, we establish a comprehensive picture of vertebrate genome evolution, including an auto-tetraploidization (1RV) that predates the early Cambrian cyclostome-gnathostome split, followed by a mid-late Cambrian allo-tetraploidization (2RJV) in gnathostomes and a prolonged Cambrian-Ordovician hexaploidization (2RCY) in cyclostomes. Subsequently, hagfishes underwent extensive genomic changes, with chromosomal fusions accompanied by the loss of genes that are essential for organ systems (for example, genes involved in the development of eyes and in the proliferation of osteoclasts); these changes account, in part, for the simplification of the hagfish body plan1,2. Finally, we characterize programmed DNA elimination in hagfish, identifying protein-coding genes and repetitive elements that are deleted from somatic cell lineages during early development. The elimination of these germline-specific genes provides a mechanism for resolving genetic conflict between soma and germline by repressing germline and pluripotency functions, paralleling findings in lampreys10,11. Reconstruction of the early genomic history of vertebrates provides a framework for further investigations of the evolution of cyclostomes and jawed vertebrates.

Author Correction: Elephant shark genome provides unique insights into gnathostome evolution.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

The p53-Mdm2 interaction and the E3 ligase activity of Mdm2/Mdm4 are conserved from lampreys to humans.

The extant jawless vertebrates, represented by lampreys and hagfish, are the oldest group of vertebrates and provide an interesting genomic evolutionary pivot point between invertebrates and jawed vertebrates. Through genome analysis of one of these jawless vertebrates, the Japanese lamprey (Lethenteron japonicum), we identified all three members of the important p53 transcription factor family--Tp53, Tp63, and Tp73--as well as the Mdm2 and Mdm4 genes. These genes and their products are significant cellular regulators in human cancer, and further examination of their roles in this most distant vertebrate relative sheds light on their origin and coevolution. Their important role in response to DNA damage has been highlighted by the discovery of multiple copies of the Tp53 gene in elephants. Expression of lamprey p53, Mdm2, and Mdm4 proteins in mammalian cells reveals that the p53-Mdm2 interaction and the Mdm2/Mdm4 E3 ligase activity existed in the common ancestor of vertebrates and have been conserved for >500 million years of vertebrate evolution. Lamprey Mdm2 degrades human p53 with great efficiency, but this interaction is not blocked by currently available small molecule inhibitors of the human HDM2 protein, suggesting utility of lamprey Mdm2 in the study of the human p53 signaling pathway.

The octopus genome and the evolution of cephalopod neural and morphological novelties.

Coleoid cephalopods (octopus, squid and cuttlefish) are active, resourceful predators with a rich behavioural repertoire. They have the largest nervous systems among the invertebrates and present other striking morphological innovations including camera-like eyes, prehensile arms, a highly derived early embryogenesis and a remarkably sophisticated adaptive colouration system. To investigate the molecular bases of cephalopod brain and body innovations, we sequenced the genome and multiple transcriptomes of the California two-spot octopus, Octopus bimaculoides. We found no evidence for hypothesized whole-genome duplications in the octopus lineage. The core developmental and neuronal gene repertoire of the octopus is broadly similar to that found across invertebrate bilaterians, except for massive expansions in two gene families previously thought to be uniquely enlarged in vertebrates: the protocadherins, which regulate neuronal development, and the C2H2 superfamily of zinc-finger transcription factors. Extensive messenger RNA editing generates transcript and protein diversity in genes involved in neural excitability, as previously described, as well as in genes participating in a broad range of other cellular functions. We identified hundreds of cephalopod-specific genes, many of which showed elevated expression levels in such specialized structures as the skin, the suckers and the nervous system. Finally, we found evidence for large-scale genomic rearrangements that are closely associated with transposable element expansions. Our analysis suggests that substantial expansion of a handful of gene families, along with extensive remodelling of genome linkage and repetitive content, played a critical role in the evolution of cephalopod morphological innovations, including their large and complex nervous systems.

Elephant shark genome provides unique insights into gnathostome evolution.

The emergence of jawed vertebrates (gnathostomes) from jawless vertebrates was accompanied by major morphological and physiological innovations, such as hinged jaws, paired fins and immunoglobulin-based adaptive immunity. Gnathostomes subsequently diverged into two groups, the cartilaginous fishes and the bony vertebrates. Here we report the whole-genome analysis of a cartilaginous fish, the elephant shark (Callorhinchus milii). We find that the C. milii genome is the slowest evolving of all known vertebrates, including the 'living fossil' coelacanth, and features extensive synteny conservation with tetrapod genomes, making it a good model for comparative analyses of gnathostome genomes. Our functional studies suggest that the lack of genes encoding secreted calcium-binding phosphoproteins in cartilaginous fishes explains the absence of bone in their endoskeleton. Furthermore, the adaptive immune system of cartilaginous fishes is unusual: it lacks the canonical CD4 co-receptor and most transcription factors, cytokines and cytokine receptors related to the CD4 lineage, despite the presence of polymorphic major histocompatibility complex class II molecules. It thus presents a new model for understanding the origin of adaptive immunity.

Lampreys, the jawless vertebrates, contain only two ParaHox gene clusters.

ParaHox genes (Gsx, Pdx, and Cdx) are an ancient family of developmental genes closely related to the Hox genes. They play critical roles in the patterning of brain and gut. The basal chordate, amphioxus, contains a single ParaHox cluster comprising one member of each family, whereas nonteleost jawed vertebrates contain four ParaHox genomic loci with six or seven ParaHox genes. Teleosts, which have experienced an additional whole-genome duplication, contain six ParaHox genomic loci with six ParaHox genes. Jawless vertebrates, represented by lampreys and hagfish, are the most ancient group of vertebrates and are crucial for understanding the origin and evolution of vertebrate gene families. We have previously shown that lampreys contain six Hox gene loci. Here we report that lampreys contain only two ParaHox gene clusters (designated as α- and ß-clusters) bearing five ParaHox genes (Gsxα, Pdxα, Cdxα, Gsxß, and Cdxß). The order and orientation of the three genes in the α-cluster are identical to that of the single cluster in amphioxus. However, the orientation of Gsxß in the ß-cluster is inverted. Interestingly, Gsxß is expressed in the eye, unlike its homologs in jawed vertebrates, which are expressed mainly in the brain. The lamprey Pdxα is expressed in the pancreas similar to jawed vertebrate Pdx genes, indicating that the pancreatic expression of Pdx was acquired before the divergence of jawless and jawed vertebrate lineages. It is likely that the lamprey Pdxα plays a crucial role in pancreas specification and insulin production similar to the Pdx of jawed vertebrates.

Cyclostomes Lack Clustered Protocadherins.

The brain, comprising billions of neurons and intricate neural networks, is arguably the most complex organ in vertebrates. The diversity of individual neurons is fundamental to the neuronal network complexity and the overall function of the vertebrate brain. In jawed vertebrates, clustered protocadherins provide the molecular basis for this neuronal diversity, through stochastic and combinatorial expression of their various isoforms in individual neurons. Based on analyses of transcriptomes from the Japanese lamprey brain and sea lamprey embryos, genome assemblies of the two lampreys, and brain expressed sequence tags of the inshore hagfish, we show that extant jawless vertebrates (cyclostomes) lack the clustered protocadherins. Our findings indicate that the clustered protocadherins originated from a nonclustered protocadherin in the jawed vertebrate ancestor, after the two rounds of whole-genome duplication. In the absence of clustered protocadherins, cyclostomes might have evolved novel molecules or mechanisms for generating neuronal diversity which remains to be discovered.

DNA-Encoded Compound Libraries as Open Source: A†Powerful Pathway to New Drugs.

"… We envisioned an iterative system where a unique DNA tag identifier that encoded the event was appended to each newly formed molecule. These vast collections of molecules are known today as DNA- encoded chemical libraries (DECLs), and allow scientists to do selections on the benchtop that previously required access to large and complex high-throughput screening centers …" Read more in the Guest Editorial by Richard A. Lerner and Sydney Brenner.

Sequencing of Pax6 loci from the elephant shark reveals a family of Pax6 genes in vertebrate genomes, forged by ancient duplications and divergences.

Pax6 is a developmental control gene essential for eye development throughout the animal kingdom. In addition, Pax6 plays key roles in other parts of the CNS, olfactory system, and pancreas. In mammals a single Pax6 gene encoding multiple isoforms delivers these pleiotropic functions. Here we provide evidence that the genomes of many other vertebrate species contain multiple Pax6 loci. We sequenced Pax6-containing BACs from the cartilaginous elephant shark (Callorhinchus milii) and found two distinct Pax6 loci. Pax6.1 is highly similar to mammalian Pax6, while Pax6.2 encodes a paired-less Pax6. Using synteny relationships, we identify homologs of this novel paired-less Pax6.2 gene in lizard and in frog, as well as in zebrafish and in other teleosts. In zebrafish two full-length Pax6 duplicates were known previously, originating from the fish-specific genome duplication (FSGD) and expressed in divergent patterns due to paralog-specific loss of cis-elements. We show that teleosts other than zebrafish also maintain duplicate full-length Pax6 loci, but differences in gene and regulatory domain structure suggest that these Pax6 paralogs originate from a more ancient duplication event and are hence renamed as Pax6.3. Sequence comparisons between mammalian and elephant shark Pax6.1 loci highlight the presence of short- and long-range conserved noncoding elements (CNEs). Functional analysis demonstrates the ancient role of long-range enhancers for Pax6 transcription. We show that the paired-less Pax6.2 ortholog in zebrafish is expressed specifically in the developing retina. Transgenic analysis of elephant shark and zebrafish Pax6.2 CNEs with homology to the mouse NRE/Pα internal promoter revealed highly specific retinal expression. Finally, morpholino depletion of zebrafish Pax6.2 resulted in a "small eye" phenotype, supporting a role in retinal development. In summary, our study reveals that the pleiotropic functions of Pax6 in vertebrates are served by a divergent family of Pax6 genes, forged by ancient duplication events and by independent, lineage-specific gene losses.

Evidence for at least six Hox clusters in the Japanese lamprey (Lethenteron japonicum).

Cyclostomes, comprising jawless vertebrates such as lampreys and hagfishes, are the sister group of living jawed vertebrates (gnathostomes) and hence an important group for understanding the origin and diversity of vertebrates. In vertebrates and other metazoans, Hox genes determine cell fate along the anteroposterior axis of embryos and are implicated in driving morphological diversity. Invertebrates contain a single Hox cluster (either intact or fragmented), whereas elephant shark, coelacanth, and tetrapods contain four Hox clusters owing to two rounds of whole-genome duplication ("1R" and "2R") during early vertebrate evolution. By contrast, most teleost fishes contain up to eight Hox clusters because of an additional "teleost-specific" genome duplication event. By sequencing bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) clones and the whole genome, here we provide evidence for at least six Hox clusters in the Japanese lamprey (Lethenteron japonicum). This suggests that the lamprey lineage has experienced an additional genome duplication after 1R and 2R. The relative age of lamprey and human paralogs supports this hypothesis. Compared with gnathostome Hox clusters, lamprey Hox clusters are unusually large. Several conserved noncoding elements (CNEs) were predicted in the Hox clusters of lamprey, elephant shark, and human. Transgenic zebrafish assay indicated the potential of CNEs to function as enhancers. Interestingly, CNEs in individual lamprey Hox clusters are frequently conserved in multiple Hox clusters in elephant shark and human, implying a many-to-many orthology relationship between lamprey and gnathostome Hox clusters. Such a relationship suggests that the first two rounds of genome duplication may have occurred independently in the lamprey and gnathostome lineages.

A survey of ancient conserved non-coding elements in the PAX6 locus reveals a landscape of interdigitated cis-regulatory archipelagos.

Biological differences between cell types and developmental processes are characterised by differences in gene expression profiles. Gene-distal enhancers are key components of the regulatory networks that specify the tissue-specific expression patterns driving embryonic development and cell fate decisions, and variations in their sequences are a major contributor to genetic disease and disease susceptibility. Despite advances in the methods for discovery of putative cis-regulatory sequences, characterisation of their spatio-temporal enhancer activities in a mammalian model system remains a major bottle-neck. We employed a strategy that combines gnathostome sequence conservation with transgenic mouse and zebrafish reporter assays to survey the genomic locus of the developmental control gene PAX6 for the presence of novel cis-regulatory elements. Sequence comparison between human and the cartilaginous elephant shark (Callorhinchus milii) revealed several ancient gnathostome conserved non-coding elements (agCNEs) dispersed widely throughout the PAX6 locus, extending the range of the known PAX6 cis-regulatory landscape to contain the full upstream PAX6-RCN1 intergenic region. Our data indicates that ancient conserved regulatory sequences can be tested effectively in transgenic zebrafish even when not conserved in zebrafish themselves. The strategy also allows efficient dissection of compound regulatory regions previously assessed in transgenic mice. Remarkable overlap in expression patterns driven by sets of agCNEs indicates that PAX6 resides in a landscape of multiple tissue-specific regulatory archipelagos.

Reflex: intramolecular barcoding of long-range PCR products for sequencing multiple pooled DNAs.

We present an intramolecular reaction, Reflex™, to derive shorter, sequencer-ready, daughter polymerase chain reaction products from a pooled population of barcoded long-range polymerase chain reaction products, whilst still preserving the cognate DNA barcodes. Our Reflex workflow needs only a small number of primer extension steps to rapidly enable uniform sequence coverage of long contiguous sequence targets in large numbers of samples at low cost on desktop next-generation sequencers.

A trans-species missense SNP in Amhr2 is associated with sex determination in the tiger pufferfish, Takifugu rubripes (fugu).

Heterogametic sex chromosomes have evolved independently in various lineages of vertebrates. Such sex chromosome pairs often contain nonrecombining regions, with one of the chromosomes harboring a master sex-determining (SD) gene. It is hypothesized that these sex chromosomes evolved from a pair of autosomes that diverged after acquiring the SD gene. By linkage and association mapping of the SD locus in fugu (Takifugu rubripes), we show that a SNP (C/G) in the anti-Müllerian hormone receptor type II (Amhr2) gene is the only polymorphism associated with phenotypic sex. This SNP changes an amino acid (His/Asp384) in the kinase domain. While females are homozygous (His/His384), males are heterozygous. Sex in fugu is most likely determined by a combination of the two alleles of Amhr2. Consistent with this model, the medaka hotei mutant carrying a substitution in the kinase domain of Amhr2 causes a female phenotype. The association of the Amhr2 SNP with phenotypic sex is conserved in two other species of Takifugu but not in Tetraodon. The fugu SD locus shows no sign of recombination suppression between X and Y chromosomes. Thus, fugu sex chromosomes represent an unusual example of proto-sex chromosomes. Such undifferentiated X-Y chromosomes may be more common in vertebrates than previously thought.

Molecular rotors as conditionally fluorescent labels for rapid detection of biomolecular interactions.

We demonstrate the use of fluorescent molecular rotors as probes for detecting biomolecular interactions, specifically peptide-protein interactions. Molecular rotors undergo twisted intramolecular charge transfer upon irradiation, relax via the nonradiative torsional relaxation pathway, and have been typically used as viscosity probes. Their utility as a tool for detecting specific biomolecular interactions has not been explored. Using the well characterized p53-Mdm2 interaction as a model system, we designed a 9-(2-carboxy-2-cyanovinyl) julolidine-based p53 peptide reporter, JP1-R, which fluoresces conditionally only upon Mdm2 binding. The reporter was used in a rapid, homogeneous assay to screen a fragment library for antagonists of the p53-Mdm2 interaction, and several inhibitors were identified. Subsequent validation of these hits using established secondary assays suggests increased sensitivity afforded by JP1-R. The fluorescence of molecular rotors contingent upon target binding makes them a versatile tool for detecting specific biomolecular interactions.

Basal vertebrates clarify the evolutionary history of ciliopathy-associated genes Tmem138 and Tmem216.

Recently, Lee et al. (Lee JH, Silhavy JL, Lee JE, et al. (30 co-authors). 2012. Evolutionarily assembled cis-regulatory module at a human ciliopathy locus. Science (335:966-969.) demonstrated that mutation in either of the transmembrane protein encoding genes, TMEM138 or TMEM216, causes phenotypically indistinguishable ciliopathy. Furthermore, on the basis of the observation that their orthologs are linked in a head-to-tail configuration in other mammals and Anolis, but present on different scaffolds or chromosomes in Xenopus tropicalis and zebrafish, the authors concluded that the two genes were joined by chromosomal rearrangement at the evolutionary amphibian-to-reptile transition to form a functional module. We have sequenced these gene loci in a cartilaginous fish, the elephant shark, and found that the two genes together with a related gene (Tmem80) constitute a tandem cluster. This suggests that the two genes were already linked in the vertebrate ancestor and then rearranged independently in Xenopus and zebrafish. Analyses of the coelacanth and lamprey genomes support this hypothesis. Our study highlights the importance of basal vertebrates as critical reference genomes.

Expression of Wnt signaling skeletal development genes in the cartilaginous fish, elephant shark (Callorhinchus milii).

Jawed vertebrates (Gnasthostomes) are broadly separated into cartilaginous fishes (Chondricthyes) and bony vertebrates (Osteichthyes). Cartilaginous fishes are divided into chimaeras (e.g. ratfish, rabbit fish and elephant shark) and elasmobranchs (e.g. sharks, rays and skates). Both cartilaginous fish and bony vertebrates are believed to have a common armoured bony ancestor (Class Placodermi), however cartilaginous fish are believed to have lost bone. This study has identified and investigated genes involved in skeletal development in vertebrates, in the cartilaginous fish, elephant shark (Callorhinchus milii). Ctnnb1 (ß-catenin), Sfrp (secreted frizzled protein) and a single Sost or Sostdc1 gene (sclerostin or sclerostin domain-containing protein 1) were identified in the elephant shark genome and found to be expressed in a number of tissues, including cartilage. ß-catenin was also localized in several elephant shark tissues. The expression of these genes, which belong to the Wnt/ß-catenin pathway, is required for normal bone formation in mammals. These findings in the cartilaginous skeleton of elephant shark support the hypothesis that the common ancestor of cartilaginous fishes and bony vertebrates had the potential for making bone.

A method for counting PCR template molecules with application to next-generation sequencing.

Amplification by polymerase chain reaction is often used in the preparation of template DNA molecules for next-generation sequencing. Amplification increases the number of available molecules for sequencing but changes the representation of the template molecules in the amplified product and introduces random errors. Such changes in representation hinder applications requiring accurate quantification of template molecules, such as allele calling or estimation of microbial diversity. We present a simple method to count the number of template molecules using degenerate bases and show that it improves genotyping accuracy and removes noise from PCR amplification. This method can be easily added to existing DNA library preparation techniques and can improve the accuracy of variant calling.