Chronic Cadmium Exposure can Alter Energy Allocation to Physiological Functions in the Shrimp Penaeus vannamei.

Environmental stressors in aquatic organisms can be assessed using a bioenergetic approach based on the evaluation of changes in their physiological parameters. We evaluated the chronic effects of cadmium (Cd2+) on the energy balance as well as the survival, growth, metabolism, nitrogen excretion, hepatosomatic index, oxidized energy substrate, and osmoregulation of the shrimp Penaeus vannamei with the hypothesis that the high energy demand related to the homeostatic regulation of Cd2+could disrupt the energy balance and as a consequence, their physiological functions. The shrimp exposed to Cd2+ had higher mortality (30%), directed more energy into growth (33% of energy intake), ingested 10% more energy, and defecated less than control animals. Cd2+ exposure caused a tendency to decrease metabolism and ammonia excretion but did not alter the hepatosomatic index, type of energy substrate oxidized, and the hyperosmorregulatory pattern of the species. The Cd+2 exposure may have induced a trade-off response because there was a growth rate increase accompanied by increased mortality.

Microplastic contamination in wild shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei from the Huizache-Caimanero Coastal lagoon, SE Gulf of California.

We identified and characterized microplastics (MPs) in the gastrointestinal tract (GT), gills (GI), and exoskeleton (EX) of Litopenaeus vannamei in a coastal lagoon from the SE Gulf of California. The most common MPs were fibers and fragments with an average size of 403 ± 296 µm, in which the transparent and blue colors predominated. The abundance (items/g as wet weight (ww)) in the GT, GI, and EX was 114.7 ± 33.2, 13.7 ± 5.3 and 3.0 ± 0.5, respectively. The abundance of MPs per shrimp was 13.3 ± 1.1, while the abundance per individual (ww) was 0.9 ± 0.2 MPs/g. Considering the consumption of shrimp in Mexico, MP abundance, and shrimp consumption (discarding GI and EX), we estimated MP ingestion as 280 items/person/year. The results from this study can be used as background information for future MP biomonitoring in shrimp species of ecological and commercial importance.

Acute Toxicity of Daphnia magna Neonates Exposed to Single and Composite Mixtures of Four Emerging Contaminants.

The effects of emerging contaminants on environmental health are of high concern, especially those potentially induced by mixtures. We assessed single and composite mixtures of triclosan (T), 17ß-estradiol (E2), sulfamethoxazole (SMX), and nicotine (N) at various concentrations, on neonates of Daphnia magna. When used in single exposure, T and N induced high toxicity (100% immobility, each one), compared to SMX and E2 (2.5% and 10% immobility, respectively). When T, E2, SMX and N were in mixture, T had the highest contribution to the overall toxicity in mixture exposures. The N toxicity lowered when in a fourfold exposure (85% immobility in fourfold exposure). Due to the high toxicity of T and N, both alone and in the mixtures, our results can serve as a warning about the use of these substances and their release in the aquatic ecosystem.

Assessment of Microplastic and Organophosphate Pesticides Contamination in Fiddler Crabs from a Ramsar Site in the Estuary of Guayas River, Ecuador.

We assessed the concentration of organophosphate pesticides (OPs) and microplastics (MPs) in water and sediments from the burrows, and tissues of the fiddler crabs Leptuca festae and Minuca ecuadoriensis, from Isla Santay, a Ramsar site in the estuary of the Guayas River, Ecuador. MPs concentrations in the burrows were 660 ± 174.36 items kg-1 (w.w.) and 26 ± 1 items L-1 in collected sediments and water, respectively. Regarding OPs, water and sediment concentrations were up to 26 times above the USEPA thresholds for chronic exposure, indicating environmental risk. MPs were found in tissues collected from both species. The highest abundance was in the gills followed by the digestive tract and hepatopancreas. OPs concentrations in tissues were below the detection limits. Because fiddler crabs are chronically exposed to environmental contamination, they are suitable bioindicators to monitor Isla Santay and to comprehend human impacts in coastal environments of Ecuador.

Assessing the Quality of Amazon Aquatic Ecosystems with Multiple Lines of Evidence: The Case of the Northeast Andean Foothills of Ecuador.

We assessed the quality of Andes-Amazonia streams in Ecuador impacted by gold mining (GM), discharges from inefficient sewage network in urban areas (UA), wastes from fish farming (FF) and from non-functional landfill (LF) and other few threats (FT). We selected three lines of evidence (LOE) that were used separately and integrated into a index: water quality (WQI) and macroinvertebrate community (AAMBI) indices and phytotoxicity tests. Streams affected by UA and LF had the lowest scores to WQI and phytotoxicity, and by GM had the lowest scores to AAMBI. Macroinvertebrate absence in GM should be considered as a warning signal of long-term mining impacts in the area. The integrated LOE index showed that sites with identified threats had 30%-53% stream quality decline compared to FT sites. The use of the selected LOE seems to be a useful tools for long-term monitoring and evaluation of this sensitive aquatic ecosystem.

Emerging Contaminants in the Northeast Andean Foothills of Amazonia: The Case of Study of the City of Tena, Napo, Ecuador.

This work is a study on the occurrence of emerging pollutants in the northeast Ecuadorian Amazon. Emerging contaminants (ECs)-caffeine, triclosan, estradiol, acetaminophen, nicotine, and ibuprofen-were quantified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in rivers and streams of the Amazon basin near the city of Tena, Ecuador. For that, a total of 16 natural water samples were taken in 8 locations. Sampling sites included areas impacted by discharges from inefficient sewage networks in urban areas, wastes from fish farming and non-functional landfill, a stream with few threats, tap water, and treated sewage. Caffeine was found in the 38% of the samples studied while trimethoprim and acetaminophen had an occurrence of 13%. Caffeine was detected at two sites receiving untreated sewage and one site receiving treated sewage with mean concentrations that ranged between 19 and 31.5 µg L-1. Acetaminophen (50.4 µg L-1) and trimethoprim (2 µg L-1) were only detected in the river receiving treated sewage effluent. This is the first assessment of emerging contaminants in the upper Ecuadorian Amazon basin, and our observations highlight the need for better sewage treatment and water quality monitoring in Amazonian cities.

Preliminary Assessment of Plastic Litter and Microplastic Contamination in Freshwater Depositional Areas: The Case Study of Puerto Misahualli, Ecuadorian Amazonia.

We quantify plastic litter (PL, > 2 cm) and microplastics (MP, < 5 mm) from the sediments of a beach formed at a riverine depositional area, at the upper Amazon River basin, Ecuador. In the collection area (4400 m2), the PL density was 0.045 items m-2, where low-density polyethylene bags were the prevalent PL. The beach was classified as "very clean" (Clean Coast Index (CCI) of 1.3 items m-2). Regarding MP, in 55 sampling stations, average MP concentrations ranged from 0 to 2200 items kg-1 of dry sediment (0.5-2 mm), and 0-4200 items kg-1 of dry sediment (2-5 mm). Blue fibers were the prevalent MP. Our results represent the first report to show the ubiquitous presence of PL and MP for the area. The monitoring and management of plastic disposal in freshwater beaches are necessary, as here we report a small part of an undocumented issue.

Effects of waterborne copper delivered under two different exposure and salinity regimes on osmotic and ionic regulation in the mudflat fiddler crab, Minuca rapax (Ocypodidae, Brachyura).

The effects of exposure to copper (Cu) on tissue Cu accumulation, on hemolymph osmotic, Na+ and Cl- regulation, and on gill Na+/K+-ATPase (NKA) and carbonic anhydrase (CA) activities were evaluated in the fiddler crab Minuca rapax. Waterborne copper was delivered to the crabs at one of three salinities (seawater at 25‰ salinity [S] = isosmotic control; distilled water [<0.1‰ S] = hypo-osmotic medium; or 60‰ S = hyper-osmotic seawater) either for 5 days in a 0.5-cm water film containing 0, 50, 150, 250 or 500µg Cu/L with free access to a dry surface, or in crabs fully submerged for 5h at 0, 250 or 500µg Cu/L. In the crabs with free access to a dry surface, the highest Cu concentrations were found in the hemolymph and hepatopancreas with some accumulation in the gills; accumulation in the hemolymph and gills was enhanced in low salinity but was salinity independent in the hepatopancreas. Osmotic regulation was unaffected by Cu exposure; however Na+ and Cl- hypo- regulation was impaired by Cu in 25 and 60‰ S. Gill NKA activity was stimulated 2-fold at 50µg Cu/L and markedly inhibited at 150µg Cu/L and above in 0 and 25‰ S. Gill CA was inhibited in <0.1‰ S but stimulated in 25 and 60‰ S; an inverse concentration-CA activity response was seen above 150µg Cu/L for all salinities. In the submerged crabs, Cu accumulated in all tissues in 60‰ S; however, there was no clear-cut Cu concentration-accumulation relationship evident in any tissue for either exposure regime, likely owing to the crabs' ability to regulate Cu. Copper exposure diminished osmotic, [Na+] and [Cl-] hypo-regulatory ability, especially in higher salinities. Gill NKA activity was markedly inhibited by Cu overall, and particularly above 250µg Cu/L in <0.1‰ S. Gill CA activity was inhibited in 25‰ S but inconsistently affected in 0 and 60‰ S. These findings show that Minuca rapax is affected both physiologically and biochemically by Cu contamination, although to different degrees, depending on the delivery regime, salinity, copper concentration and target tissue.

Microplastics impair the reproductive behavior and life history traits of the amphipod Parhyale hawaiensis.

We investigated the distribution and effects of waterborne microplastic (MP) (polyethylene microspheres, 53-63 um) on the emergent model for ecotoxicology, the amphipod Parhyale hawaiensis, during 30 days of exposure. The following life-history traits were measured: (1) survival, (2) specific growth rate (SGR), (3) reproductive performance (precopulatory pairing behavior, fecundity, and time to release neonates), (4) molting frequency, (5) F1 newborn offspring survival and (6) MP bioaccumulation. No significant mortality or molt was seen in any of the treatments. MP caused a reduction in SGR, being more pronounced in females. The time for precopulatory pairing was 3-fold longer in amphipods exposed to MP. Fecundity decreased by 50 %, and the time to release juveniles was 6.7 days longer for amphipods exposed to MP. Finally, neonate survival decreased by 80 % after ten days of release. MP disrupts the reproductive mechanisms and triggers adverse effects on life history traits in P. hawaiensis.

Feces and molting as microplastic sinks in a mangrove crab.

We exposed adult individuals of the sentinel mangrove crab Minuca rapax to waterborne microplastics (MP; 53-63 µm polyethylene spheres) in a long-term experiment (56 days). Weassessed 1) MP effects on growth, survival, and food intake. and 2) the MP tissue acumulation and its reduction of body burden through feces and molting. MP exposure did not affect growth and survival. The hepatopancreas accumulated more MP than the gills and muscle. Most of the ingested MP particles were released in the feces and molts, indicating a rapid passage through the digestive tract. MP impaired food intake of M. rapax, with unknown consequences to the local populations. These results provide insights on MP translocation mechanisms, its elimination and toxicity associated with MP.

Potential ecological risk assessment of microplastics in environmental compartments in Mexico: A meta-analysis.

Microplastic (MP) environmental contamination has been widely studied in Mexico. However, the evaluation of the associated risk to MPs in environmental compartments is scarce. Therefore, this study addresses this issue using diverse indicators such as the Pollution Load Index (PLI), the Polymer Risk Index (PRI), and the Potential Ecological Risk Index (PERI). The results of a meta-analysis revealed high MP contamination levels in most of the studied compartments, which included marine and estuarine waters, beach sand, freshwater, sediments, and biota. Regarding the risk assessment indicators, PLIs indicated low (56%), dangerous (22%), moderate (12%), and high (10%) levels across compartments. Meanwhile, PRIs displayed concerning values, with 36%, 35%, 20%, and 9% exhibiting dangerous, high, moderate, and low levels, respectively. Thus, high PRI values emphasized the significant rise in MP pollution, largely attributed to high-hazard polymer compositions. Otherwise, PERIs showed low (56%), very dangerous (29%), moderate (6%), high (5%), and dangerous (4%) levels. Thus, the ecological risk in Mexico is widespread and mainly linked to MP abundance, polymer type, environmental matrix, and characteristics of organisms. This study represents the first attempt at MP ecological risk assessment in Mexico, providing crucial insights for developing mitigation strategies to address concerns about MP contamination.

Effects of the insecticide imidacloprid on aquatic invertebrate communities of the Ecuadorian Amazon.

Imidacloprid is a neonicotinoid insecticide that has received particular attention due to its widespread use and potential adverse effects for aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Its toxicity to aquatic organisms has been evaluated in central and southern Europe as well as in (sub-)tropical regions of Africa and Asia, showing high toxic potential for some aquatic insects and zooplankton taxa. However, its toxicity to aquatic organisms representative of tropical regions of Latin America has never been evaluated. To fill this knowledge gap, we carried out a mesocosm experiment to assess the short- and long-term effects of imidacloprid on freshwater invertebrate communities representative of the Ecuadorian Amazon. A mesocosm experiment was conducted with five weekly applications of imidacloprid at four nominal concentrations (0.01 µg/L, 0.1 µg/L, 1 µg/L and 10 µg/L). Toxic effects were evaluated on zooplankton and macroinvertebrate populations and communities, as well as on water quality parameters for 70 days. Given the climatic conditions prevailing in the study area, characterized by a high solar radiation and abundant rainfall that resulted in mesocosm overflow, there was a rapid dissipation of the test compound from the water column (half-life: 4 days). The macroinvertebrate taxa Callibaetis pictus (Ephemeroptera), Chironomus sp. (Diptera), and the zooplankton taxon Macrocyclops sp., showed population declines caused by the imidacloprid treatment, with a 21-d Time Weighted Average No Observed Effect Concentrations (21-d TWA NOEC) of 0.46 µg/L, except for C. pictus which presented a 21-d TWA NOEC of 0.05 µg/L. In general terms, the sensitivity of these taxa to imidacloprid was greater than that reported for surrogate taxa in temperate zones and similar to that reported in other (sub-)tropical regions. These results confirm the high sensitivity of tropical aquatic invertebrates to this compound and suggest the need to establish regulations for the control of imidacloprid contamination in Amazonian freshwater ecosystems.

Tolerance and behavioral responses of crabs in disturbed mangroves during a heatwave event.

We assessed the tolerance, safety margins, and behavioral responses to extreme conditions of the mangrove fiddler crab Leptuca speciosa during a heatwave event (May of 2022), in the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico. In the field, L. speciosa demonstrated aggregation behavior, congregating in areas that were above the water level to escape the extreme water conditions. In the laboratory, we determined that the upper critical thermal limits (UT99) ranged from 40.2 °C and 42 °C. For salinity, the lethal concentration was LC99 = 39 psu. Our study showed that L. speciosa, one of the most conspicuous and resilient inhabitants of mangroves, had no safety margin and low tolerance to the climatic conditions as measured in the heatwave, and displayed a protective behavior. Considering that the frequency and intensity of heatwaves have been predicted to increase in the next few years, the combined multiple stressors effect may increase the vulnerability of mangrove organisms.

Synergistic effects of microplastic and lead trigger physiological and biochemical impairment in a mangrove crab.

Microplastics (MP) are vectors for other environmental contaminants, such as metals, being a considerable problem, especially in the aquatic ecosystem. To investigate the combined effects of MP (high density polyethylene) with lead (Pb), we exposed the mangrove fiddler crab Minuca vocator to Pb (50 mg L-1), and MP (25 mg L-1) alone and in mixture, for 5 days. We aimed to determine Pb and MP bioaccumulation, as well as physiological (oxygen consumption and hemolymph osmolality) and biochemical (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and lipid peroxidation) traits effects. Co-exposure of MP and Pb significantly increased the bioaccumulation of Pb, but reduced MP tissue accumulation. Regarding the physiological traits, increasing osmolality and oxygen consumption rates compared to the control were observed, particularly in the combined Pb and MP exposure. As to biochemical traits, the combination of Pb and MP induced the most significant responses in the enzymatic profile antioxidant enzyme activity. The catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and dismutase superoxide (SOD) decreased compared to individual exposure effects; the combination of MP and Pb had a synergistic effect on promoting lipid peroxidation (LPO). The co-exposure of MP and Pb acted synergistically when compared to the effects of the isolated compounds. Due to the increasing MP contamination in mangroves, more severe physiological and biochemical effects can be expected on mangrove crabs exposed to metal contamination.

The impact of settleable atmospheric particulate on the energy metabolism, biochemical processes, and behavior of a sentinel mangrove crab.

We use the sentinel mangrove crab, Minuca rapax, as a model to investigate the effects of metallic settleable particulate matter (SePM) on wetland. Multiple levels of energetic responses, including (i) metabolic rate and energy budget, (ii) oxidative stress, and (iii) behavioral response by righting time, were assessed as well as the metal and metalloid content in crabs exposed to 0, 0.1 and 1 g.L-1 of SePM, under emerged and submerged conditions over five days, simulating the rigors of the intertidal habitat. Al, Fe, Mn, Cr, and Y exhibited a concentration-dependent increase. Metal concentrations were higher in submerged crabs due to the continuous ingestion of SePM and direct exposure through gills. Exposure concentration up to 1 g.L-1 decreased metabolic rate and enzymatic activities, reduced assimilation efficiency and energy for maintenance, and induces a slower response to righting time, probably by metal effects on nervous system and energy deficits. In conclusion, SePM exposure affects the redox status and physiology of M. rapax depending on he submersion regime and SePM concentration. The disruption to the energy budget and the lethargic behavior in M. rapax exposed to SePM implies potential ecological alterations in the mangrove ecosystem with unknown consequences for the local population.

Application of ecotoxicological tools to evaluate the quality status of mangroves under restoration in the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico.

Ecotoxicological tools, namely biomarkers and bioassays, may provide insights on the ecological quality status of mangroves under restoration. We investigated how 1) physicochemical parameters and water bioassays using Artemia franciscana; and 2) quantification of sublethal (osmoregulatory capacity, biochemical, and oxidative stress) and individual biomarkers (density, length-weight relationship [LWR], parasitic prevalence) in the sentinel fiddler crab Minuca rapax, can improve restoration indicators in mangroves from the Yucatán Peninsula, Southern Gulf of Mexico. We showed that water quality was improved with restoration, but still presented toxicity. Regarding sublethal biomarkers, M rapax from restored areas lower osmotic regulatory capacity, higher oxidative stress, and showed lipid peroxidation. As to the individual biomarkers, the density, LWR, and the prevalence of parasites in M. rapax was higher in restored areas. The use of bioassays/biomarkers were useful as early warning indicators to better assess the health of mangroves under restoration.

Macroecotoxicological approaches to emerging patterns of microplastic bioaccumulation in crabs from estuarine and marine environments.

Despite the increasing plastic discharge into the environment, few articles have dealt with the macroecological implications of microplastics (MPs) bioaccumulation on organisms. We performed a meta-analysis of MPs accumulation in true crabs and pseudocrabs worldwide and made use of macroecotoxicological approaches to know if: I) functional traits influence the bioaccumulation of MPs in the tissues of crabs; II) there is a latitudinal pattern of MPs bioaccumulation; III) there are tissues that can accumulate more MPs; IV) crabs can sort particles according to size, color, shape and type. Our results showed that functional traits influence the accumulation of MPs. Smaller crabs in size and weight and with shorter lifespans tended to exhibit more plastic particles. According to the environment, estuarine crabs from the intertidal and muddy substrates held more MPs. Also, burrowers exhibited significantly more particles in the tissues than omnivorous crabs. Besides, we recorded that crabs from low latitudes tended to exhibit more plastic particles, probably because of the mangroves' location that acts as traps for MPs. Non-human-consumed crabs accumulated significantly more MPs than human-consumed ones. Considering the tissues, gills were prone to accumulate more debris than the digestive tract, but without significant differences. Finally, colorless fibers of 1-5 mm of PA, PP and PET were the predominant characteristics of MPs, suggesting that crabs accumulated denser types but did not sort plastic according to color. These results indicate that functional traits might influence the accumulation of MPs and that there are coastal regions and geographical areas where crabs tend to accumulate more MPs. Analyzing MPs accumulation patterns with macroecological tools can generate information to identify the most affected species and define priorities for monitoring and implementing actions toward reducing plastic use globally.

Trophic transfer mechanisms of potentially toxic elements from sediment and plant leaves (Rhizophora mangle) to fiddler crabs (Minuca rapax) ().

To assess "bottom-up" to "top-down" trophic transfer, we analyze As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Se, Zn, Fe, and Mn from two sediment chemical fractions (exchangeable and organic-bound), red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) leaves, and fiddler crab (M. rapax) soft tissues from Isla del Carmen, Yucatán Peninsula. Both mechanisms were observed indictive that R. mangle and M. rapax indeed bioaccumulated the toxic elements from the different matrices with the latter being a macro-concentrator only for Cu and Zn. Although the modified Geo-accumulation factor (combined exchangeable and organic matter fractions) suggested that the studied sites are practically "uncontaminated", Hg is the only toxic element to be having a "moderately to strongly" impact. Data shows how M. rapax had progressively bioaccumulated Hg, but no biomagnification could be corroborated given that the fiddler crab behaved as a de-concentrator.

Human health risk assessment of metals and metalloids in mining areas of the Northeast Andean foothills of the Ecuadorian Amazon.

Gold mining (GM) is a major source of metals and metalloids in rivers, causing severe environmental pollution and increasing the exposure risks to the residents of surrounding areas. Mining in Ecuadorian Amazonia has dramatically increased in recent years, but its impacts on Indigenous local populations that make use of rivers are still unknown. The aim of this study was to assess the risks to adults and children caused by the exposure to metals and metalloids in freshwater ecosystems contaminated with tailings released by GM activities in 11 sites of the upper Napo River basin, Ecuador. We selected a carcinogenic and a noncarcinogenic risk assessment method to estimate the hazard index (HI) and total cancer risk (TCR). The concentration of Ag, Al, As, Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, Zn, B, and V in water and sediment samples was considered to assess the risks to human health. The calculated HI was 23-352 times greater than the acceptable limits in all sites for both children and adults. Mn and Fe were the main contributors (75% in water and 99% in sediment) to the total calculated risk based on the HI. The calculated TCR for children and adults exceeded approximately one to three times the permissible threshold in all sites. As and Pb contributed up to 93% of the total calculated risk based on TCR for both children and adults. This study demonstrates that the emission and mobilization of metals and metalloids caused by mining activities increase the risk to human health, to which we recommend further monitoring of freshwater contamination in the area and the implementation of preventive health management measures. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2023;19:706-716. © 2022 The Authors. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Society of Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry (SETAC).

Multi-level responses of oysters Crassostrea virginica for assessing organochlorine pesticides in a Ramsar coastal lagoon in southern Mexico.

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) have been intensively used without proper regulation and control in Latin America due to the prevalence of diseases and pests, thus posing potential risks to nontarget organisms. Initiatives for ecosystem preservation, such as to designate protected areas, may not be enough to avoid contamination by OCPs, considering that protected areas tend to be permeable to diffuse sources. Here, we investigate multi-level responses of the oyster Crassostrea virginica to OCPs in Laguna de Términos, a RAMSAR coastal lagoon in the southern Gulf of Mexico. For this aim, OCPs occurrence and concentrations in the water, sediment, and in oysters from 3 settlement banks were assessed. Enzymatic and non-enzymatic biochemical biomarkers were quantified in the oysters' mantle and digestive gland, and the human health risk due to oyster consumption was also evaluated. OCPs in water were below detection limits. Fourteen OCPs were detected in sediments (∑OCPs mean of 49 ngg-1) and 7 in oyster tissues (∑OCPs mean of 121 ngg-1). The occurrence of OCPs was related to the land uses along the watersheds of the rivers that drain into the lagoon. Biochemical responses were correlated with OCPs (∑HCH, ∑DDT, heptachlor and endosulfan) in sediment, and oyster tissues. OCPs in oyster tissues showed a strong association with pro-oxidant forces and oxidative stress responses (Superoxide dismutase, Catalase, Glutathione Peroxidase, and lipid peroxidation), and neurotoxicity (Acetylcholinesterase), suggesting that the current OCPs contamination exerts significant stress. Our study also shows that the consumption of oysters from the lagoon increases the potential human health risk. Considering that Laguna de Términos is a protected Ramsar site, we suggest that environmental protection measures should be increased and that a monitoring program for OCPs exposure is necessary to assess the effects on this ecosystem.