Proximity labelling identifies pro-migratory endocytic recycling cargo and machinery of the Rab4 and Rab11 families.

Endocytic recycling controls the return of internalised cargoes to the plasma membrane to coordinate their positioning, availability and downstream signalling. The Rab4 and Rab11 small GTPase families regulate distinct recycling routes, broadly classified as fast recycling from early endosomes (Rab4) and slow recycling from perinuclear recycling endosomes (Rab11), and both routes handle a broad range of overlapping cargoes to regulate cell behaviour. We adopted a proximity labelling approach, BioID, to identify and compare the protein complexes recruited by Rab4a, Rab11a and Rab25 (a Rab11 family member implicated in cancer aggressiveness), revealing statistically robust protein-protein interaction networks of both new and well-characterised cargoes and trafficking machinery in migratory cancer cells. Gene ontological analysis of these interconnected networks revealed that these endocytic recycling pathways are intrinsically connected to cell motility and cell adhesion. Using a knock-sideways relocalisation approach, we were further able to confirm novel links between Rab11, Rab25 and the ESCPE-1 and retromer multiprotein sorting complexes, and identify new endocytic recycling machinery associated with Rab4, Rab11 and Rab25 that regulates cancer cell migration in the 3D matrix.

Mutant p53 drives invasion by promoting integrin recycling.

p53 is a tumor suppressor protein whose function is frequently lost in cancers through missense mutations within the Tp53 gene. This results in the expression of point-mutated p53 proteins that have both lost wild-type tumor suppressor activity and show gain of functions that contribute to transformation and metastasis. Here, we show that mutant p53 expression can promote invasion, loss of directionality of migration, and metastatic behavior. These activities of p53 reflect enhanced integrin and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) trafficking, which depends on Rab-coupling protein (RCP) and results in constitutive activation of EGFR/integrin signaling. We provide evidence that mutant p53 promotes cell invasion via the inhibition of TAp63, and simultaneous loss of p53 and TAp63 recapitulates the phenotype of mutant p53 in cells. These findings open the possibility that blocking alpha5/beta1-integrin and/or the EGF receptor will have therapeutic benefit in mutant p53-expressing cancers.

Combinatorial mathematical modelling approaches to interrogate rear retraction dynamics in 3D cell migration.

Cell migration in 3D microenvironments is a complex process which depends on the coordinated activity of leading edge protrusive force and rear retraction in a push-pull mechanism. While the potentiation of protrusions has been widely studied, the precise signalling and mechanical events that lead to retraction of the cell rear are much less well understood, particularly in physiological 3D extra-cellular matrix (ECM). We previously discovered that rear retraction in fast moving cells is a highly dynamic process involving the precise spatiotemporal interplay of mechanosensing by caveolae and signalling through RhoA. To further interrogate the dynamics of rear retraction, we have adopted three distinct mathematical modelling approaches here based on (i) Boolean logic, (ii) deterministic kinetic ordinary differential equations (ODEs) and (iii) stochastic simulations. The aims of this multi-faceted approach are twofold: firstly to derive new biological insight into cell rear dynamics via generation of testable hypotheses and predictions; and secondly to compare and contrast the distinct modelling approaches when used to describe the same, relatively under-studied system. Overall, our modelling approaches complement each other, suggesting that such a multi-faceted approach is more informative than methods based on a single modelling technique to interrogate biological systems. Whilst Boolean logic was not able to fully recapitulate the complexity of rear retraction signalling, an ODE model could make plausible population level predictions. Stochastic simulations added a further level of complexity by accurately mimicking previous experimental findings and acting as a single cell simulator. Our approach highlighted the unanticipated role for CDK1 in rear retraction, a prediction we confirmed experimentally. Moreover, our models led to a novel prediction regarding the potential existence of a 'set point' in local stiffness gradients that promotes polarisation and rapid rear retraction.

Integrins: masters and slaves of endocytic transport.

Since it has become clear that adhesion receptors are trafficked through the endosomal pathway and that this can influence their function, much effort has been invested in obtaining detailed descriptions of the molecular machinery responsible for internalizing and recycling integrins. New findings indicate that integrin trafficking dictates the nature of Rho GTPase signalling during cytokinesis and cell migration. Furthermore, integrins can exert control over the trafficking of other receptors in a way that drives cancer cell invasion and tumour angiogenesis.

Vesicle trafficking pathways that direct cell migration in 3D matrices and in vivo.

Cell migration is a vital process in development and disease, and while the mechanisms that control motility are relatively well understood on two-dimensional surfaces, the control of cell migration in three dimensions (3D) and in vivo has only recently begun to be understood. Vesicle trafficking pathways have emerged as a key regulatory element in migration and invasion, with the endocytosis and recycling of cell surface cargos, including growth factor and chemokine receptors, adhesion receptors and membrane-associated proteases, being of major importance. We highlight recent advances in our understanding of how endocytic trafficking controls the availability and local activity of these cargoes to influence the movement of cells in 3D matrix and in developing organisms. In particular, we discuss how endocytic trafficking of different receptor classes spatially restricts signals and activity, usually to the leading edge of invasive cells.

JIP3 localises to exocytic vesicles and focal adhesions in the growth cones of differentiated PC12 cells.

The JNK-interacting protein 3 (JIP3) is a molecular scaffold, expressed predominantly in neurons, that serves to coordinate the activation of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) by binding to JNK and the upstream kinases involved in its activation. The JNK pathway is involved in the regulation of many cellular processes including the control of cell survival, cell death and differentiation. JIP3 also associates with microtubule motor proteins such as kinesin and dynein and is likely an adapter protein involved in the tethering of vesicular cargoes to the motors involved in axonal transport in neurons. We have used immunofluorescence microscopy and biochemical fractionation to investigate the subcellular distribution of JIP3 in relation to JNK and to vesicular and organelle markers in rat pheochromocytoma cells (PC12) differentiating in response to nerve growth factor. In differentiated PC12 cells, JIP3 was seen to accumulate in growth cones at the tips of developing neurites where it co-localised with both JNK and the JNK substrate paxillin. Cellular fractionation of PC12 cells showed that JIP3 was associated with a subpopulation of vesicles in the microsomal fraction, distinct from synaptic vesicles, likely to be an anterograde-directed exocytic vesicle pool. In differentiated PC12 cells, JIP3 did not appear to associate with retrograde endosomal vesicles thought to be involved in signalling axonal injury. Together, these observations indicate that JIP3 may be involved in transporting vesicular cargoes to the growth cones of PC12 cells, possibly targeting JNK to its substrate paxillin, and thus facilitating neurite outgrowth.

Correction to: JIP3 localises to exocytic vesicles and focal adhesions in the growth cones of differentiated PC12 cells.

The article "JIP3 localises to exocytic vesicles and focal adhesions in the growth cones of differentiated PC12 cells", written by "Patrick T. Caswell, Martin Dickens", was originally published electronically on the publisher's internet portal https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11010-017-3222-7 on 20 November 2017 without open access.

A MAPK-Driven Feedback Loop Suppresses Rac Activity to Promote RhoA-Driven Cancer Cell Invasion.

Cell migration in 3D microenvironments is fundamental to development, homeostasis and the pathobiology of diseases such as cancer. Rab-coupling protein (RCP) dependent co-trafficking of α5ß1 and EGFR1 promotes cancer cell invasion into fibronectin (FN) containing extracellular matrix (ECM), by potentiating EGFR1 signalling at the front of invasive cells. This promotes a switch in RhoGTPase signalling to inhibit Rac1 and activate a RhoA-ROCK-Formin homology domain-containing 3 (FHOD3) pathway and generate filopodial actin-spike protrusions which drive invasion. To further understand the signalling network that drives RCP-driven invasive migration, we generated a Boolean logical model based on existing network pathways/models, where each node can be interrogated by computational simulation. The model predicted an unanticipated feedback loop, whereby Raf/MEK/ERK signalling maintains suppression of Rac1 by inhibiting the Rac-activating Sos1-Eps8-Abi1 complex, allowing RhoA activity to predominate in invasive protrusions. MEK inhibition was sufficient to promote lamellipodia formation and oppose filopodial actin-spike formation, and led to activation of Rac and inactivation of RhoA at the leading edge of cells moving in 3D matrix. Furthermore, MEK inhibition abrogated RCP/α5ß1/EGFR1-driven invasive migration. However, upon knockdown of Eps8 (to suppress the Sos1-Abi1-Eps8 complex), MEK inhibition had no effect on RhoGTPase activity and did not oppose invasive migration, suggesting that MEK-ERK signalling suppresses the Rac-activating Sos1-Abi1-Eps8 complex to maintain RhoA activity and promote filopodial actin-spike formation and invasive migration. Our study highlights the predictive potential of mathematical modelling approaches, and demonstrates that a simple intervention (MEK-inhibition) could be of therapeutic benefit in preventing invasive migration and metastasis.

Modelling GTPase dynamics to understand RhoA-driven cancer cell invasion.

Metastasis, initially driven by cells migrating and invading through the local environment, leads to most cancer-associated deaths. Cells can use a variety of modes to move in vitro, all of which depend on Rho GTPases at some level. While traditionally it was thought that Rac1 activity drives protrusive lamellipodia at the leading edge of a polarised cell while RhoA drives rear retraction, more recent work in 3D microenvironments has revealed a much more complicated picture of GTPase dynamics. In particular, RhoA activity can dominate the leading edge polymerisation of actin to form filopodial actin-spike protrusions that drive more invasive cell migration. We recently described a potential mechanism to abrogate this pro-invasive localised leading edge Rac1 to RhoA switch via manipulation of a negative feedback loop that was revealed by adopting a logical modelling approach. Both challenging dogma and taking a formal, mathematical approach to understanding signalling involved in motility may be vital to harnessing harmful cell migration and preventing metastasis in future research.

Mutant p53 regulates Dicer through p63-dependent and -independent mechanisms to promote an invasive phenotype.

The control and processing of microRNAs (miRs) is critical in the regulation of all cellular responses. Previous studies have suggested that a reduction in the expression of certain miRs, or an overall decrease in miR processing through the partial depletion of Dicer, can promote enhanced metastatic potential. We show here that Dicer depletion can promote the invasive behavior of cells that is reflected in enhanced recycling and activation of the growth factor receptors Met and EGF receptor. These responses are also seen in response to the expression of tumor-derived mutant p53s, and we show that mutant p53 can down-regulate Dicer expression through both direct inhibition of the TAp63-mediated transcriptional activation of Dicer and a TAp63-independent control of Dicer protein expression. Our results delineate a clear relationship between mutant p53, TAp63, and Dicer that might contribute to the metastatic function of mutant p53 but, interestingly, also reveal TAp63-independent functions of mutant p53 in controlling Dicer activity.

Rac1 is deactivated at integrin activation sites through an IQGAP1-filamin-A-RacGAP1 pathway.

Cell migration makes a fundamental contribution to both normal physiology and disease pathogenesis. Integrin engagement with extracellular ligands spatially controls, via the cyclical activation and deactivation of the small GTPase Rac1, the dynamic membrane protrusion and cytoskeletal reorganization events that are required for directional migration. Although the pathways that control integrin-mediated Rac1 activation are reasonably well defined, the mechanisms that are responsible for switching off activity are poorly understood. Here, proteomic analysis of activated integrin-associated complexes suggests filamin-A and IQ-motif-containing GTPase-activating protein 1 (IQGAP1) as candidates that link ß1 integrin to Rac1. siRNA-mediated knockdown of either filamin-A or IQGAP1 induced high, dysregulated Rac1 activity during cell spreading on fibronectin. Using immunoprecipitation and immunocytochemistry, filamin-A and IQGAP1 were shown to be part of a complex that is recruited to active ß1 integrin. Mass spectrometric analysis of individual filamin-A, IQGAP1 and Rac1 pull-downs and biochemical analysis, identified RacGAP1 as a novel IQGAP1 binding partner. Further immunoprecipitation and immunocytochemistry analyses demonstrated that RacGAP1 is recruited to IQGAP1 and active ß1 integrin, and that suppression of RacGAP1 expression triggered elevated Rac1 activity during spreading on fibronectin. Consistent with these findings, reduced expression of filamin-A, IQGAP1 or RacGAP1 triggered unconstrained membrane protrusion and disrupted directional cell migration on fibrillar extracellular matrices. These findings suggest a model whereby integrin engagement, followed by filamin-A, IQGAP1 and RacGAP1 recruitment, deactivates Rac1 to constrain its activity spatially and thereby coordinate directional cell migration.

Graphene oxide activates canonical TGFß signalling in a human chondrocyte cell line via increased plasma membrane tension.

Graphene Oxide (GO) has been shown to increase the expression of key cartilage genes and matrix components within 3D scaffolds. Understanding the mechanisms behind the chondroinductive ability of GO is critical for developing articular cartilage regeneration therapies but remains poorly understood. The objectives of this work were to elucidate the effects of GO on the key chondrogenic signalling pathway - TGFß and identify the mechanism through which signal activation is achieved in human chondrocytes. Activation of canonical signalling was validated through GO-induced SMAD-2 phosphorylation and upregulation of known TGFß response genes, while the use of a TGFß signalling reporter assay allowed us to identify the onset of GO-induced signal activation which has not been previously reported. Importantly, we investigate the cell-material interactions and molecular mechanisms behind these effects, establishing a novel link between GO, the plasma membrane and intracellular signalling. By leveraging fluorescent lifetime imaging (FLIM) and a membrane tension probe, we reveal GO-mediated increases in plasma membrane tension, in real-time for the first time. Furthermore, we report the activation of mechanosensory pathways which are known to be regulated by changes in plasma membrane tension and reveal the activation of endogenous latent TGFß in the presence of GO, providing a mechanism for signal activation. The data presented here are critical to understanding the chondroinductive properties of GO and are important for the implementation of GO in regenerative medicine.

Endocytic recycling pathways: emerging regulators of cell migration.

The past five years have seen a steady accumulation of data reinforcing the view that Rab-regulated recycling pathways contribute to cell migration. In particular, detailed descriptions have emerged of the mechanisms that recruit integrins and growth factor receptors to Rab4- and Rab11-driven pathways. Recent work provides new insight into the importance of particular recycling events in cell migration within a variety of physiological contexts.

ARF3 weights the balance for prostate cancer metastasis.

Patrick T. Caswell discusses work from Bryant and colleagues (2023. J. Cell Biol.https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.202206115) which shows how ARF3 impacts metastasis in prostate cancer by regulating a switch between modes of collective invasion.

3D matrix adhesion feedback controls nuclear force coupling to drive invasive cell migration.

Cell invasion is a multi-step process, initiated by the acquisition of a migratory phenotype and the ability to move through complex 3D extracellular environments. We determine the composition of cell-matrix adhesion complexes of invasive breast cancer cells in 3D matrices and identify an interaction complex required for invasive migration. ßPix and myosin18A (Myo18A) drive polarized recruitment of non-muscle myosin 2A (NM2A) to adhesion complexes at the tips of protrusions. Actomyosin force engagement then displaces the Git1-ßPix complex from paxillin, establishing a feedback loop for adhesion maturation. We observe active force transmission to the nucleus during invasive migration that is needed to pull the nucleus forward. The recruitment of NM2A to adhesions creates a non-muscle myosin isoform gradient, which extends from the protrusion to the nucleus. We postulate that this gradient facilitates coupling of cell-matrix interactions at the protrusive cell front with nuclear movement, enabling effective invasive migration and front-rear cell polarity.

Rab25 associates with alpha5beta1 integrin to promote invasive migration in 3D microenvironments.

Here, we report a direct interaction between the beta1 integrin cytoplasmic tail and Rab25, a GTPase that has been linked to tumor aggressiveness and metastasis. Rab25 promotes a mode of migration on 3D matrices that is characterized by the extension of long pseudopodia, and the association of the GTPase with alpha5beta1 promotes localization of vesicles that deliver integrin to the plasma membrane at pseudopodial tips as well as the retention of a pool of cycling alpha5beta1 at the cell front. Furthermore, Rab25-driven tumor-cell invasion into a 3D extracellular matrix environment is strongly dependent on ligation of fibronectin by alpha5beta1 integrin and the capacity of Rab25 to interact with beta1 integrin. These data indicate that Rab25 contributes to tumor progression by directing the localization of integrin-recycling vesicles and thereby enhancing the ability of tumor cells to invade the extracellular matrix.

alpha v beta3 and alpha5beta1 integrin recycling pathways dictate downstream Rho kinase signaling to regulate persistent cell migration.

Accumulating evidence suggests that integrin recycling regulates cell migration. However, the lack of reagents to selectively target the trafficking of individual heterodimers, as opposed to endocytic transport as a whole, has made it difficult to define the contribution made by particular recycling pathways to directional cell movement. We show that autophosphorylation of protein kinase D1 (PKD1) at Ser(916) is necessary for its association with alphavbeta3 integrin. Expression of PKD1(916A) or the use of mutants of beta3 that do not bind to PKD1 selectively inhibits short-loop, Rab4-dependent recycling of alphavbeta3, and this suppresses the persistence of fibroblast migration. However, we report that short-loop recycling does not directly contribute to fibroblast migration by moving alphavbeta3 to the cell front, but by antagonizing alpha5beta1 recycling, which, in turn, influences the cell's decision to migrate with persistence or to move randomly.

Neuropilin-1/GIPC1 signaling regulates alpha5beta1 integrin traffic and function in endothelial cells.

Neuropilin 1 (Nrp1) is a coreceptor for vascular endothelial growth factor A165 (VEGF-A165, VEGF-A164 in mice) and semaphorin 3A (SEMA3A). Nevertheless, Nrp1 null embryos display vascular defects that differ from those of mice lacking either VEGF-A164 or Sema3A proteins. Furthermore, it has been recently reported that Nrp1 is required for endothelial cell (EC) response to both VEGF-A165 and VEGF-A121 isoforms, the latter being incapable of binding Nrp1 on the EC surface. Taken together, these data suggest that the vascular phenotype caused by the loss of Nrp1 could be due to a VEGF-A164/SEMA3A-independent function of Nrp1 in ECs, such as adhesion to the extracellular matrix. By using RNA interference and rescue with wild-type and mutant constructs, we show here that Nrp1 through its cytoplasmic SEA motif and independently of VEGF-A165 and SEMA3A specifically promotes alpha5beta1-integrin-mediated EC adhesion to fibronectin that is crucial for vascular development. We provide evidence that Nrp1, while not directly mediating cell spreading on fibronectin, interacts with alpha5beta1 at adhesion sites. Binding of the homomultimeric endocytic adaptor GAIP interacting protein C terminus, member 1 (GIPC1), to the SEA motif of Nrp1 selectively stimulates the internalization of active alpha5beta1 in Rab5-positive early endosomes. Accordingly, GIPC1, which also interacts with alpha5beta1, and the associated motor myosin VI (Myo6) support active alpha5beta1 endocytosis and EC adhesion to fibronectin. In conclusion, we propose that Nrp1, in addition to and independently of its role as coreceptor for VEGF-A165 and SEMA3A, stimulates through its cytoplasmic domain the spreading of ECs on fibronectin by increasing the Rab5/GIPC1/Myo6-dependent internalization of active alpha5beta1. Nrp1 modulation of alpha5beta1 integrin function can play a causal role in the generation of angiogenesis defects observed in Nrp1 null mice.

Non-canonical ubiquitylation makes its mark on Rap2 and cell motility.

Ubiquitin modification controls protein stability and cargo trafficking, and in this issue Duncan et al. (2022. J. Cell Biol.https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.202107114) reveal a unique mechanism through which Rab40b/Cul5-mediated ubiquitylation of Rap2 regulates its activity and recycling to the leading edge to control cell migration and invasion.

On demand expression control of endogenous genes with DExCon, DExogron and LUXon reveals differential dynamics of Rab11 family members.

CRISPR technology has made generation of gene knock-outs widely achievable in cells. However, once inactivated, their re-activation remains difficult, especially in diploid cells. Here, we present DExCon (Doxycycline-mediated endogenous gene Expression Control), DExogron (DExCon combined with auxin-mediated targeted protein degradation), and LUXon (light responsive DExCon) approaches which combine one-step CRISPR-Cas9-mediated targeted knockin of fluorescent proteins with an advanced Tet-inducible TRE3GS promoter. These approaches combine blockade of active gene expression with the ability to re-activate expression on demand, including activation of silenced genes. Systematic control can be exerted using doxycycline or spatiotemporally by light, and we demonstrate functional knock-out/rescue in the closely related Rab11 family of vesicle trafficking regulators. Fluorescent protein knock-in results in bright signals compatible with low-light live microscopy from monoallelic modification, the potential to simultaneously image different alleles of the same gene, and bypasses the need to work with clones. Protein levels are easily tunable to correspond with endogenous expression through cell sorting (DExCon), timing of light illumination (LUXon), or by exposing cells to different levels of auxin (DExogron). Furthermore, our approach allowed us to quantify previously unforeseen differences in vesicle dynamics, transferrin receptor recycling, expression kinetics, and protein stability among highly similar endogenous Rab11 family members and their colocalization in triple knock-in ovarian cancer cell lines.