Functional Assessment of Genetic Variants with Outcomes Adapted to Clinical Decision-Making.

Understanding the medical effect of an ever-growing number of human variants detected is a long term challenge in genetic counseling. Functional assays, based on in vitro or in vivo evaluations of the variant effects, provide essential information, but they require robust statistical validation, as well as adapted outputs, to be implemented in the clinical decision-making process. Here, we assessed 25 pathogenic and 15 neutral missense variants of the BRCA1 breast/ovarian cancer susceptibility gene in four BRCA1 functional assays. Next, we developed a novel approach that refines the variant ranking in these functional assays. Lastly, we developed a computational system that provides a probabilistic classification of variants, adapted to clinical interpretation. Using this system, the best functional assay exhibits a variant classification accuracy estimated at 93%. Additional theoretical simulations highlight the benefit of this ready-to-use system in the classification of variants after functional assessment, which should facilitate the consideration of functional evidences in the decision-making process after genetic testing. Finally, we demonstrate the versatility of the system with the classification of siRNAs tested for human cell growth inhibition in high throughput screening.

A vitamin D-based strategy overcomes chemoresistance in prostate cancer.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) is a common male malignancy that requires new therapeutic strategies due to acquired resistance to its first-line treatment, docetaxel. The benefits of vitamin D on prostate cancer (PCa) progression have been previously reported. This study aimed to investigate the effects of vitamin D on chemoresistance in CRPC. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: Structure function relationships of potent vitamin D analogues were determined. The combination of the most potent analogue and docetaxel was explored in chemoresistant primary PCa spheroids and in a xenograft mouse model derived from a patient with a chemoresistant CRPC. KEY RESULTS: Here, we show that Xe4MeCF3 is more potent than the natural ligand to induce vitamin D receptor (VDR) transcriptional activities and that it has a larger therapeutic window. Moreover, we demonstrate that VDR agonists restore docetaxel sensitivity in PCa spheroids. Importantly, Xe4MeCF3 reduces tumour growth in a chemoresistant CRPC patient-derived xenograft. In addition, this treatment targets signalling pathways associated with cancer progression in the remaining cells. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS: Taken together, these results unravel the potency of VDR agonists to overcome chemoresistance in CRPC and open new avenues for the clinical management of PCa.

The Benefit of Combining Docetaxel with Androgen Deprivation Therapy in Localized and Metastatic Hormone-sensitive Prostate Cancer is Predicted by ERG Expression: An Analysis of Two GETUG Phase 3 Trials.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Docetaxel has become a standard component of care for advanced prostate cancer (PC); however, its benefits are not universal among patients. A subset of PC cases exhibit TMPRSS2-ERG gene fusion, resulting in ERG overexpression in tumors. Our aim was to assess biomarkers for docetaxel efficacy in men with hormone-sensitive PC (HSPC). METHODS: Pretreatment prostate biopsies were obtained from participants in two randomized phase 3 clinical trials investigating docetaxel in high-risk localized PC (GETUG 12) and metastatic HSPC (GETUG 15). Immunohistochemistry staining for Ki67, PTEN, RB, and phosphorylated RB was conducted for GETUG 12 samples, and ERG staining for GETUG 12 and GETUG 15 samples. We examined biomarker association with outcomes using univariate and multivariable analyses adjusted for other validated prognostic factors. KEY FINDINGS AND LIMITATIONS: Among GETUG 12 patients, Ki67 was associated with a worse relapse-free survival (RFS; hazard ratio [HR] 1.72; p = 0.0092). A pooled analysis for the two trials (pinteraction = 0.056) revealed that docetaxel-based chemotherapy improved failure-free survival for patients with ERG-positive cancer (HR 0.58; p = 0.03), but not patients with ERG-negative cancer (HR 1.08; p = 0.72). In the ERG-positive subgroup in GETUG 12 (high-risk localized PC), median RFS was 7.79 yr with androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) alone, and was not reached with ADT + docetaxel. In the ERG-negative subgroup, median progression-free survival (mPFS) was 7.79 yr with ADT alone versus 7.08 yr with ADT + docetaxel. In the ERG-positive subgroup in GETUG 15 (metastatic HSPC), mPFS was 10.7 mo with ADT alone versus 18.8 mo with ADT + docetaxel. In the ERG-negative subgroup, mPFS was 10.6 mo with ADT alone versus 13.2 mo with ADT + docetaxel. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Ki67 may serve as a prognostic factor in HSPC, while ERG expression appears to predict a response to docetaxel in both high-risk localized and metastatic HSPC. PATIENT SUMMARY: We assessed factors that could predict outcomes after docetaxel chemotherapy in patients with advanced prostate cancer. We found that expression of a protein called ERG can predict a good response to docetaxel in these patients.

Development of Novel Models of Aggressive Variants of Castration-resistant Prostate Cancer.

BACKGROUND: Genomic studies have identified new subsets of aggressive prostate cancer (PCa) with poor prognosis (eg, neuroendocrine prostate cancer [NEPC], PCa with DNA damage response [DDR] alterations, or PCa resistant to androgen receptor pathway inhibitors [ARPIs]). Development of novel therapies relies on the availability of relevant preclinical models. OBJECTIVE: To develop new preclinical models (patient-derived xenograft [PDX], PDX-derived organoid [PDXO], and patient-derived organoid [PDO]) representative of the most aggressive variants of PCa and to develop a new drug evaluation strategy. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: NEPC (n = 5), DDR (n = 7), and microsatellite instability (MSI)-high (n = 1) PDXs were established from 51 patients with metastatic PCa; PDXOs (n = 16) and PDOs (n = 6) were developed to perform drug screening. Histopathology and treatment response were characterized. Molecular profiling was performed by whole-exome sequencing (WES; n = 13), RNA sequencing (RNA-seq; n = 13), and single-cell RNA-seq (n = 14). WES and RNA-seq data from patient tumors were compared with the models. OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: Relationships with outcome were analyzed using the multivariable chi-square test and the tumor growth inhibition test. RESULTS AND LIMITATIONS: Our PDXs captured both common and rare molecular phenotypes and their molecular drivers, including alterations of BRCA2, CDK12, MSI-high status, and NEPC. RNA-seq profiling demonstrated broad representation of PCa subtypes. Single-cell RNA-seq indicates that PDXs reproduce cellular and molecular intratumor heterogeneity. WES of matched patient tumors showed preservation of most genetic driver alterations. PDXOs and PDOs preserve drug sensitivity of the matched tissue and can be used to determine drug sensitivity. CONCLUSIONS: Our models reproduce the phenotypic and genomic features of both common and aggressive PCa variants and capture their molecular heterogeneity. Successfully developed aggressive-variant PCa preclinical models provide an important tool for predicting tumor response to anticancer therapy and studying resistance mechanisms. PATIENT SUMMARY: In this report, we looked at the outcomes of preclinical models from patients with metastatic prostate cancer enrolled in the MATCH-R trial (NCT02517892).

Genomic Profiling of Metastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer Samples Resistant to Androgen Receptor Pathway Inhibitors.

PURPOSE: The androgen receptor axis inhibitors (ARPI; e.g., enzalutamide, abiraterone acetate) are administered in daily practice for men with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC). However, not all patients respond, and mechanisms of both primary and acquired resistance remain largely unknown. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: In the prospective trial MATCH-R (NCT02517892), 59 patients with mCRPC underwent whole-exome sequencing (WES) and/or RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) of samples collected before starting ARPI. Also, 18 patients with mCRPC underwent biopsy at time of resistance. The objectives were to identify genomic alterations associated with resistance to ARPIs as well as to describe clonal evolution. Associations of genomic and transcriptomic alterations with primary resistance were determined using Wilcoxon and Fisher exact tests. RESULTS: WES analysis indicated that no single-gene genomic alterations were strongly associated with primary resistance. RNA-seq analysis showed that androgen receptor (AR) gene alterations and expression levels were similar between responders and nonresponders. RNA-based pathway analysis found that patients with primary resistance had a higher Hedgehog pathway score, a lower AR pathway score and a lower NOTCH pathway score than patients with a response. Subclonal evolution and acquisition of new alterations in AR-related genes or neuroendocrine differentiation are associated with acquired resistance. ARPIs do not induce significant changes in the tumor transcriptome of most patients; however, programs associated with cell proliferation are enriched in resistant samples. CONCLUSIONS: Low AR activity, activation of stemness programs, and Hedgehog pathway were associated with primary ARPIs' resistance, whereas most acquired resistance was associated with subclonal evolution, AR-related events, and neuroendocrine differentiation. See related commentary by Slovin, p. 4323.

Stemness markers characterize IGR-CaP1, a new cell line derived from primary epithelial prostate cancer.

Deciphering molecular pathways involved in the early steps of prostate oncogenesis requires both in vitro and in vivo models derived from human primary tumors. However the few recognized models of human prostate epithelial cancer originate from metastases. To date, very few models are proposed from primary tumors and immortalizing normal human prostate cells does not recapitulate the natural history of the disease. By culturing human prostate primary tumor cells onto human epithelial extra-cellular matrix, we successfully selected a new prostate cancer cell line, IGR-CaP1, and clonally-derived subclones. IGR-CaP1 cells, that harbor a tetraploid karyotype, high telomerase activity and mutated TP53, rapidly induced subcutaneous xenografts in nude mice. Furthermore, IGR-CaP1 cell lines, all exhibiting negativity for the androgen receptor and PSA, express the specific prostate markers alpha-methylacyl-CoA racemase and a low level of the prostate-specific membrane antigen PSMA, along with the prostate basal epithelial markers CK5 and CK14. More importantly, these clones express high CD44, CD133, and CXCR4 levels associated with high expression of α2ß1-integrin and Oct4 which are reported to be prostate cancer stemness markers. RT-PCR data also revealed high activation of the Sonic Hedgehog signalling pathway in these cells. Additionally, the IGR-CaP1 cells possess a 3D sphere-forming ability and a renewal capacity by maintaining their CSC potential after xenografting in mice. As a result, the hormone-independent IGR-CaP1 cellular clones exhibit the original features of both basal prostate tissue and cancer stemness. Tumorigenic IGR-CaP1 clones constitute invaluable human models for studying prostate cancer progression and drug assessment in vitro as well as in animals specifically for developing new therapeutic approaches targeting prostate cancer stem cells.

Reformation of the chondroitin sulfate glycocalyx enables progression of AR-independent prostate cancer.

Lineage plasticity of prostate cancer is associated with resistance to androgen receptor (AR) pathway inhibition (ARPI) and supported by a reactive tumor microenvironment. Here we show that changes in chondroitin sulfate (CS), a major glycosaminoglycan component of the tumor cell glycocalyx and extracellular matrix, is AR-regulated and promotes the adaptive progression of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) after ARPI. AR directly represses transcription of the 4-O-sulfotransferase gene CHST11 under basal androgen conditions, maintaining steady-state CS in prostate adenocarcinomas. When AR signaling is inhibited by ARPI or lost during progression to non-AR-driven CRPC as a consequence of lineage plasticity, CHST11 expression is unleashed, leading to elevated 4-O-sulfated chondroitin levels. Inhibition of the tumor cell CS glycocalyx delays CRPC progression, and impairs growth and motility of prostate cancer after ARPI. Thus, a reactive CS glycocalyx supports adaptive survival and treatment resistance after ARPI, representing a therapeutic opportunity in patients with advanced prostate cancer.

Enzalutamide response in a panel of prostate cancer cell lines reveals a role for glucocorticoid receptor in enzalutamide resistant disease.

Representative in vitro model systems that accurately model response to therapy and allow the identification of new targets are important for improving our treatment of prostate cancer. Here we describe molecular characterization and drug testing in a panel of 20 prostate cancer cell lines. The cell lines cluster into distinct subsets based on RNA expression, which is largely driven by functional Androgen Receptor (AR) expression. KLK3, the AR-responsive gene that encodes prostate specific antigen, shows the greatest variability in expression across the cell line panel. Other common prostate cancer associated genes such as TMPRSS2 and ERG show similar expression patterns. Copy number analysis demonstrates that many of the most commonly gained (including regions containing TERC and MYC) and lost regions (including regions containing TP53 and PTEN) that were identified in patient samples by the TCGA are mirrored in the prostate cancer cell lines. Assessment of response to the anti-androgen enzalutamide shows a distinct separation of responders and non-responders, predominantly related to status of wild-type AR. Surprisingly, several AR-null lines responded to enzalutamide. These AR-null, enzalutamide-responsive cells were characterized by high levels of expression of glucocorticoid receptor (GR) encoded by NR3C1. Treatment of these cells with the anti-GR agent mifepristone showed that they were more sensitive to this drug than enzalutamide, as were several of the enzalutamide non-responsive lines. This is consistent with several recent reports that suggest that GR expression is an alternative signaling mechanism that can bypass AR blockade. This study reinforces the utility of large cell line panels for the study of cancer and identifies several cell lines that represent ideal models to study AR-null cells that have upregulated GR to sustain growth.

Combining inhibition of galectin-3 with and before a therapeutic vaccination is critical for the prostate-tumor-free outcome.

BACKGROUND: Prostate cancer (PCa) is a major health problem worldwide. Taxol derivatives-based chemotherapies or immunotherapies are usually proposed depending on the symptomatic status of the patient. In the case of immunotherapy, tumors develop robust immune escape mechanisms that abolish any protective response, and to date why prostate cancer is one of the most resistant diseases remains unresolved. METHODS: By using a combination of clinical data to study the transcriptome of metastasis samples from patients with castration-refractory prostate cancer, and state of the art cellular and molecular biology assays in samples from tumor-bearing mice that have been submitted to surgical resection of the tumor before receiving a vaccination, we answered several essential questions in the field of immunotherapy for prostate cancer. We also used two different methods to inhibit the expression of galectin-3 (Gal-3) in tumor cells: a stable RNA interference method to control the expression of this galectin efficiently only in tumor cells, and low and non-cytotoxic doses of docetaxel to easily transfer our findings to clinical settings. RESULTS: Herein, we show for the first time that Gal-3 expressed by prostate tumor cells is the main immune checkpoint responsible for the failure of vaccine-based immunotherapy. Our results show that low and non-cytotoxic doses of docetaxel lead to the inhibition of Gal-3 expression in PCa cells as well as in clinical samples of patients with metastatic and castration-resistant PCa promoting a Th1 response. We thus optimized a prostate cancer animal model that undergoes surgical resection of the tumor to mimic prostatectomy usually performed in patients. Importantly, using Gal-3-knocked down-PCa cells or low and non-cytotoxic doses of taxane before vaccination, we were able to highly control tumor recurrence through a direct impact on the proliferation and infiltration of CD8+ cytotoxic T. CONCLUSIONS: Thus, Gal-3 expression by PCa cells is a crucial inhibitor for the success of immunotherapy, and low doses of docetaxel with non-cytotoxic effect on leukocyte survival could be used before immunotherapy for all patients with PCa to reduce the expression of this critical negative immune checkpoint, pre-conditioning the tumor-microenvironment to activate an antitumor immune response and promote tumor-free outcome.

Regulation of eIF4F Translation Initiation Complex by the Peptidyl Prolyl Isomerase FKBP7 in Taxane-resistant Prostate Cancer.

PURPOSE: Targeted therapies that use the signaling pathways involved in prostate cancer are required to overcome chemoresistance and improve treatment outcomes for men. Molecular chaperones play a key role in the regulation of protein homeostasis and are potential targets for overcoming chemoresistance.Experimental Design: We established 4 chemoresistant prostate cancer cell lines and used image-based high-content siRNA functional screening, based on gene-expression signature, to explore mechanisms of chemoresistance and identify new potential targets with potential roles in taxane resistance. The functional role of a new target was assessed by in vitro and in vivo silencing, and mass spectrometry analysis was used to identify its downstream effectors. RESULTS: We identified FKBP7, a prolyl-peptidyl isomerase overexpressed in docetaxel-resistant and in cabazitaxel-resistant prostate cancer cells. This is the first study to characterize the function of human FKBP7 and explore its role in cancer. We discovered that FKBP7 was upregulated in human prostate cancers and its expression correlated with the recurrence observed in patients receiving docetaxel. FKBP7 silencing showed that FKBP7 is required to maintain the growth of chemoresistant cell lines and chemoresistant tumors in mice. Mass spectrometry analysis revealed that FKBP7 interacts with eIF4G, a component of the eIF4F translation initiation complex, to mediate the survival of chemoresistant cells. Using small-molecule inhibitors of eIF4A, the RNA helicase component of eIF4F, we were able to kill docetaxel- and cabazitaxel-resistant cells. CONCLUSIONS: Targeting FKBP7 or the eIF4G-containing eIF4F translation initiation complex could be novel therapeutic strategies to eradicate taxane-resistant prostate cancer cells.

Compound Functional Prediction Using Multiple Unrelated Morphological Profiling Assays.

Phenotypic cell-based assays have proven to be efficient at discovering first-in-class therapeutic drugs mainly because they allow for scanning a wide spectrum of possible targets at once. However, despite compelling methodological advances, posterior identification of a compound's mechanism of action (MOA) has remained difficult and highly refractory to automated analyses. Methods such as the cell painting assay and multiplexing fluorescent dyes to reveal broadly relevant cellular components were recently suggested for MOA prediction. We demonstrated that adding fluorescent dyes to a single assay has limited impact on MOA prediction accuracy, as monitoring only the nuclei stain could reach compelling levels of accuracy. This observation suggested that multiplexed measurements are highly correlated and nuclei stain could possibly reflect the general state of the cell. We then hypothesized that combining unrelated and possibly simple cell-based assays could bring a solution that would be biologically and technically more relevant to predict a drug target than using a single assay multiplexing dyes. We show that such a combination of past screen data could rationally be reused in screening facilities to train an ensemble classifier to predict drug targets and prioritize a possibly large list of unknown compound hits at once.

Differential recruitment of p160 coactivators by glucocorticoid receptor between Schwann cells and astrocytes.

In the nervous system, glucocorticoids can exert beneficial or noxious effects, depending on their concentration and the duration of hormonal stimulation. They exert their effects on neuronal and glial cells by means of their cognate receptor, the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), which recruits the p160 coactivator family members SRC-1 (steroid receptor coactivator 1), SRC-2, and SRC-3 after hormone binding. In this study, we investigated the molecular pathways used by the GR in cultured glial cells of the central and the peripheral nervous systems, astrocytes and Schwann cells (MSC80 cells), respectively. We performed functional studies based on transient transfection of a minimal glucocorticoid-sensitive reporter gene into the glial cells to test the influence of overexpression or selective inhibition by short interfering RNA of the three p160 coactivator family members on GR transactivation. We demonstrate that, depending on the glial cell type, GR differentially recruits p160 family members: in Schwann cells, GR recruited SRC-1a, SRC-1e, or SRC-3, whereas in astrocytes, SRC-1e and SRC-2, and to a lesser extent SRC-3, were active toward GR signaling. The C-terminal nuclear receptor-interacting domain of SRC-1a participates in its exclusion from the GR transcriptional complex in astrocytes. Immunolocalization experiments revealed a cell-specific intracellular distribution of the p160s, which was dependent on the duration of the hormonal induction. For example, within astrocytes, SRC-1 and SRC-2 were mainly nuclear, whereas SRC-3 unexpectedly localized to the lumen of the Golgi apparatus. In contrast, in Schwann cells, SRC-1 showed a nucleocytoplasmic shuttling depending on hormonal stimulation, whereas SRC-2 remained strictly nuclear and SRC-3 remained predominantly cytoplasmic. Altogether, these results highlight the cell specificity and the time dependence of p160s recruitment by the activated GR in glial cells, revealing the complexity of GR-p160 assembly in the nervous system.

Ligand-controlled interaction of histone acetyltransferase binding to ORC-1 (HBO1) with the N-terminal transactivating domain of progesterone receptor induces steroid receptor coactivator 1-dependent coactivation of transcription.

Modulators of cofactor recruitment by nuclear receptors are expected to play an important role in the coordination of hormone-induced transactivation processes. To identify such factors interacting with the N-terminal domain (NTD) of the progesterone receptor (PR), we used this domain as bait in the yeast Sos-Ras two-hybrid system. cDNAs encoding the C-terminal MYST (MOZ-Ybf2/Sas3-Sas2-Tip60 acetyltransferases) domain of HBO1 [histone acetyltransferase binding to the origin recognition complex (ORC) 1 subunit], a member of the MYST acetylase family, were thus selected from a human testis cDNA library. In transiently transfected CV1 cells, the wild-type HBO1 [611 amino acids (aa)] enhanced transcription mediated by steroid receptors, notably PR, mineralocorticoid receptor, and glucocorticoid receptor, and strongly induced PR and estrogen receptor coactivation by steroid receptor coactivator 1a (SRC-1a). As assessed by two-hybrid and glutathione-S-transferase pull-down assays, the HBO1 MYST acetylase domain (aa 340-611) interacts mainly with the NTD, and also contacts the DNA-binding domain and the hinge domains of hormone-bound PR. The HBO1 N-terminal region (aa 1-340) associates additionally with PR ligand-binding domain (LBD). HBO1 was found also to interact through its NTD with SRC-1a in the absence of steroid receptor. The latter coassociation enhanced specifically activation function 2 activation function encompassed in the LBD. Conversely, the MYST acetylase domain specifically enhanced SRC-1 coupling with PR NTD, through a hormone-dependent mechanism. In human embryonic kidney 293 cells expressing human PRA or PRB, HBO1 raised selectively an SRC-1-dependent response of PRB but failed to regulate PRA activity. We show that HBO1 acts through modification of an LBD-controlled structure present in the N terminus of PRB leading to the modulation of SRC-1 functional coupling with activation function 3-mediated transcription. Importantly, real-time RT-PCR analysis also revealed that HBO1 enhanced SRC-1 coactivation of PR-dependent transcription of human endogenous genes such as alpha-6 integrin and 11beta-hydroxydehydrogenase 2 but not that of amphiregulin. Immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy of human embryonic kidney-PRB cells demonstrated that the hormone induces the colocalization of HBO1 with PR-SRC-1 complex into nuclear speckles characteristic of PR-mediated chromatin remodeling. Our results suggest that HBO1 might play an important physiological role in human PR signaling.

Stable and high expression of Galectin-8 tightly controls metastatic progression of prostate cancer.

Two decades ago, Galectin-8 was described as a prostate carcinoma biomarker since it is only expressed in the neoplastic prostate, but not in the healthy tissue. To date, no biological function has been attributed to Galectin-8 that could explain this differential expression. In this study we silenced Galectin-8 in two human prostate cancer cell lines, PC3 and IGR-CaP1, and designed a pre-clinical experimental model that allows monitoring the pathology from its early steps to the long-term metastatic stages. We show for the first time that the natural and conserved expression of Gal-8 in tumour cells is responsible for the metastatic evolution of prostate cancer. In fact, Gal-8 controls the rearrangement of the cytoskeleton and E-Cadherin expression, with a major impact on anoikis and homotypic aggregation of tumour cells, both being essential processes for the survival of circulating tumour cells during metastasis. While localized prostate cancer can be cured, metastatic and advanced disease remains a significant therapeutic challenge, urging for the identification of prognostic markers of the metastatic process. Collectively, our results highlight Galectin-8 as a potential target for anti-metastatic therapy against prostate cancer.

A new model of multi-visceral and bone metastatic prostate cancer with perivascular niche targeting by a novel endothelial specific adenoviral vector.

While modern therapies for metastatic prostate cancer (PCa) have improved survival they are associated with an increasingly prevalent entity, aggressive variant PCa (AVPCa), lacking androgen receptor (AR) expression, enriched for cancer stem cells (CSCs), and evidencing epithelial-mesenchymal plasticity with a varying extent of neuroendocrine transdifferentiation. Parallel work revealed that endothelial cells (ECs) create a perivascular CSC niche mediated by juxtacrine and membrane tethered signaling. There is increasing interest in pharmacological metastatic niche targeting, however, targeted access has been impossible. Here, we discovered that the Gleason 7 derived, androgen receptor negative, IGR-CaP1 cell line possessed some but not all of the molecular features of AVPCa. Intracardiac injection into NOD/SCID/IL2Rg -/- (NSG) mice produced a completely penetrant bone, liver, adrenal, and brain metastatic phenotype; noninvasively and histologically detectable at 2 weeks, and necessitating sacrifice 4-5 weeks post injection. Bone metastases were osteoblastic, and osteolytic. IGR-CaP1 cells expressed the neuroendocrine marker synaptophysin, near equivalent levels of vimentin and e-cadherin, all of the EMT transcription factors, and activation of NOTCH and WNT pathways. In parallel, we created a new triple-targeted adenoviral vector containing a fiber knob RGD peptide, a hexon mutation, and an EC specific ROBO4 promoter (Ad.RGD.H5/3.ROBO4). This vector was expressed in metastatic microvessels tightly juxtaposed to IGR-CaP1 cells in bone and visceral niches. Thus, the combination of IGR-CaP1 cells and NSG mice produces a completely penetrant metastatic PCa model emulating end-stage human disease. In addition, the metastatic niche access provided by our novel Ad vector could be therapeutically leveraged for future disease control or cure.

Clusterin knockdown sensitizes prostate cancer cells to taxane by modulating mitosis.

Clusterin (CLU) is a stress-activated molecular chaperone that confers treatment resistance to taxanes when highly expressed. While CLU inhibition potentiates activity of taxanes and other anti-cancer therapies in preclinical models, progression to treatment-resistant disease still occurs implicating additional compensatory survival mechanisms. Taxanes are believed to selectively target cells in mitosis, a complex mechanism controlled in part by balancing antagonistic roles of Cdc25C and Wee1 in mitosis progression. Our data indicate that CLU silencing induces a constitutive activation of Cdc25C, which delays mitotic exit and hence sensitizes cancer cells to mitotic-targeting agents such as taxanes. Unchecked Cdc25C activation leads to mitotic catastrophe and cell death unless cells up-regulate protective mechanisms mediated through the cell cycle regulators Wee1 and Cdk1. In this study, we show that CLU silencing induces a constitutive activation of Cdc25C via the phosphatase PP2A leading to relief of negative feedback inhibition and activation of Wee1-Cdk1 to promote survival and limit therapeutic efficacy. Simultaneous inhibition of CLU-regulated cell cycle effector Wee1 may improve synergistic responses of biologically rational combinatorial regimens using taxanes and CLU inhibitors.

HDAC4 mediates transcriptional repression by the acute promyelocytic leukaemia-associated protein PLZF.

PLZF, the promyelocytic leukaemia zinc-finger protein, is a transcriptional repressor essential to development. In some acute leukaemias, a chromosomal translocation fusing the PLZF gene to that encoding the retinoic acid receptor RARalpha gives rise to a fusion protein, PLZF-RARalpha, thought to be responsible for constitutive repression of differentiation-associated genes in these cells. Repression by both PLZF and PLZF-RARalpha is sensitive to the histone deacetylase inhibitor TSA, and PLZF was previously shown to interact physically with HDAC1, a class I histone deacetylase. We here asked whether class II histone deacetylases, known to be generally involved in differentiation processes, participate in the repression mediated by PLZF and PLZF-RARalpha, and found that PLZF interacts with HDAC4 in both GST-pull-down and co-immunoprecipitation assays. Furthermore, HDAC4 is indeed involved in PLZF and PLZF-RARalpha-mediated repression, since an enzymatically dead mutant of HDAC4 released the repression, as did an siRNA that blocks HDAC4 expression. Taken together, our data indicate that recruitment of HDAC4 is necessary for PLZF-mediated repression in both normal and leukaemic cells.

Effects of FSH and 17beta-estradiol on the transactivation of estrogen-regulated promoters and cell proliferation in L cells.

In the present study, we analyzed human follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)-induced cell proliferation and transactivation of estrogen-sensitive reporter genes-in L cells stably expressing the human FSH receptor [L-(hFSHR(+)) cells]. In order to dissect the signaling pathways involved in this process, L-(hFSHR(+)) cells were transiently transfected with either the 3X-ERE-TAT-Luc or the ERE-VitA2-TK-CAT reporter genes and treated with FSH or PKA activators (cholera toxin, forskolin and 8-Br-cAMP) in the presence or absence of various kinase inhibitors. We found that FSH and all PKA activators, specifically induced transactivation of both reporter genes. Transactivation of estrogen-sensitive genes by FSH or PKA activators were blocked (approximately 90%) by H89 (PKA inhibitor) and LY294002 but not by Wortmannin (PI3-K inhibitors), 4-OH-tamoxifen, ICI182,780 or SB203580 (p38 MAPK inhibitor); PD98059 (ERK1/2 inhibitor) partially (approximately 30%) blocked the FSH-mediated effect. The combination of FSH and estradiol resulted in a synergistic effect on transactivation as well as on cell proliferation, and this enhancement was attenuated by antiestrogens. We additionally analyzed the participation of the coactivators SRC-1 and cAMP response element binding protein (CREB)-binding protein (CBP) in FSH-evoked estrogen receptor (ER)-dependent transactivation; we found that CBP but not SRC-1 potentiated FSH-induced transcriptional activation of both ER-sensitive reporters, being this effect stronger on the ERE-VitA2-TK-CAT than on the 3X-ERE-TAT-Luc reporter. Thus, in L-(hFSHR(+)) cells FSH induces transcriptional activation of estrogen-sensitive genes through an A-kinase-triggered signaling pathway, using also to a lesser extent the ERK1/2 and p38 pathways. PI3-K is not apparently involved in this FSH-mediated process since LY294002, but not Wortmannin, specifically binds ERs and completely blocks estrogen action. Presumably, CBP cooperates with the ER on genes that contain estrogen responsive elements through mechanisms involving the participation of other proteins and/or basal transcription factors (e.g. CREB), which in turn mediate the transcriptional response of estrogen-sensitive reporter genes to FSH stimulation.

Selective recruitment of p160 coactivators on glucocorticoid-regulated promoters in Schwann cells.

In the nervous system, glucocorticoid hormones play a major role during development and throughout life. We studied the mechanisms of action of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and its interactions with p160 coactivator family members [steroid receptor coactivator (SRC)-1 (a and e), SRC-2 and SRC-3] in mouse Schwann cells (MSC80). We found that the three p160s were expressed in MSC80 cells. We have shown by functional overexpression and RNA interference experiments that the recruitment of these coactivators by the GR is promoter dependent. A minimal promoter containing two glucocorticoid response elements, (GRE)2-TATA, recruits SRC-1 (a and e) and SRC-3, whereas SRC-2 is excluded. Within the context of the more complex mouse mammary tumor virus promoter, GR recruits SRC-1e and SRC-2, whereas SRC-1a and SRC-3 are not implicated. Furthermore, we have identified cytosolic aspartate aminotransferase as a GR target gene in MSC80 cells by microarray experiments. The GR recruits exclusively SRC-1e in the context of the cytosolic aspartate aminotransferase promoter. Because SRC-1 is the omnipresent coactivator of GR, we further investigated the interactions between GR and this coactivator in Schwann cells by reporter assays and immunocytochemistry experiments with deleted forms of SRC-1. We have shown that SRC-1 unexpectedly interacts with GR via its two nuclear receptor binding domains, thus providing a novel mechanism of GR signaling within the nervous system.

Targeting CDC25C, PLK1 and CHEK1 to overcome Docetaxel resistance induced by loss of LZTS1 in prostate cancer.

Docetaxel is used as a standard treatment in patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. However, a large subset of patients develops resistance. Understanding resistance mechanisms, which are largely unknown, will allow identification of predictive biomarkers and therapeutic targets. We established resistant IGR-CaP1 prostate cancer cell lines for different doses of Docetaxel. We investigated gene expression profiles by microarray analyses in these cell lines and generated a signature of 99 highly differentially expressed genes potentially implicated in chemoresistance. We focused on the role of the cell cycle regulator LZTS1, which was under-expressed in the Docetaxel-resistant cell lines, its inhibition resulting from the promoter methylation. Knockdown of LZTS1 in parental cells with siRNA showed that LZTS1 plays a role in the acquisition of the resistant phenotype. Furthermore, we observed that targeting CDC25C, a partner of LZTS1, with the NSC663284 inhibitor specifically killed the Docetaxel-resistant cells. To further investigate the role of CDC25C, we used inhibitors of the mitotic kinases that regulate CDC25C. Inhibition of CHEK1 and PLK1 induced growth arrest and cell death in the resistant cells. Our findings identify an important role of LZTS1 through its regulation of CDC25C in Docetaxel resistance in prostate cancer and suggest that CDC25C, or the mitotic kinases CHEK1 and PLK1, could be efficient therapeutic targets to overcome Docetaxel resistance.