Predicting brain organization with a computational model: 50-year perspective on lateral inhibition and oscillatory gating by dendrodendritic synapses.

The first compartmental computer models of brain neurons using the Rall method predicted novel and unexpected dendrodendritic interactions between mitral and granule cells in the olfactory bulb. We review the models from a 50-year perspective on the work that has challenged, supported, and extended the original proposal that these interactions mediate both lateral inhibition and oscillatory activity, essential steps in the neural basis of olfactory processing and perception. We highlight strategies behind the neurophysiological experiments and the Rall methods that enhance the ability of detailed compartmental modeling to give counterintuitive predictions that lead to deeper insights into neural organization at the synaptic and circuit level. The application of these methods to mechanisms of neurogenesis and plasticity are exciting challenges for the future.

Immunologically modified MnFe2O4 nanoparticles to synergize photothermal therapy and immunotherapy for cancer treatment.

Immunotherapy has been a promising candidate for cancer treatment. The combination of photothermal therapy (PTT) and immunotherapy have shown to cause tumor ablation and induce host immune response. However, this strategy is often hampered by a limited immune response and undesirable immunosuppression. In this work, we developed an immunologically modified nanoplatform, using ovalbumin (OVA)-coated PEGylated MnFe2O4 nanoparticles (NPs) loaded with R837 immunoadjuvant (R837-OVA-PEG-MnFe2O4 NPs) to synergize PTT and immunotherapy for the treatment of breast cancer. The designed R837-OVA-PEG-MnFe2O4 NPs are able to elicit significant immune responses in vitro and in vivo. MnFe2O4 NPs also allowed for a reduction of systemic immunosuppression through downregulation of M2-associated cytokines. More importantly, the R837-OVA-PEG-MnFe2O4 NPs under laser irradiation effectively inhibited tumor growth and prevented lung metastases, leading to a prolonged survival time and improved survival rate. In addition, the designed multitasking MnFe2O4 NPs showed as a good contrast agent for magnetic resonance (MR) imaging to detect orthotopic breast tumor in vivo. Our work provides a novel strategy for combined PTT and improved immunotherapy in the treatment of breast and other metastatic cancers.

Mathematical simulation of temperature distribution in tumor tissue and surrounding healthy tissue treated by laser combined with indocyanine green.

BACKGROUND: Photothermal therapy is a local treatment method for cancer and the heat energy generated from it could destroy the tumor cells. This study is aimed to investigate the temperature distribution in tumor tissue and surrounding health tissue of tumor bearing mice applying mathematical simulation model. Tumor bearing mice treated by laser combined with or without indocyanine green. Monte Carlo method and the Pennes bio-heat equation were used to calculate the light distribution and heat energy. COMSOL Multiphysic was adopted to construct three dimensional temperature distribution model. RESULTS: This study revealed that the data calculated by simulation model is in good agreement with the surface temperature monitored by infrared thermometer. Effected by the optical parameters and boundary conditions of tissue, the highest temperature of tissue treated by laser combined with indocyanine green was about 65 °C which located in tumor tissue and the highest temperature of tissue treated by laser was about 43 °C which located under the tumor tissue. The temperature difference was about 20 °C. Temperature distribution in tissue was not uniform. The temperature difference in different parts of tumor tissue raised up to 15 °C. The temperature of tumor tissue treated by laser combined with indocyanine green was about 20 °C higher than that of the surrounding healthy tissue. CONCLUSIONS: Reasonably good matching between the calculated temperature and the measured temperature was achieved, thus demonstrated great utility of our modeling method and approaches for deepening understand in the temperature distribution in tumor tissue and surrounding healthy tissue during the laser combined with photosensitizer. The simulation model could provide guidance and reference function for the effect of photothermal therapy.

Phototherapy using immunologically modified carbon nanotubes to potentiate checkpoint blockade for metastatic breast cancer.

Metastasis is the major cause of cancer-death. Checkpoint inhibition shows great promise as an immunotherapeutic treatment for cancer patients. However, most currently available checkpoint inhibitors have low response rates. To augment the antitumor efficacy of checkpoint inhibitors, such as CTLA-4 antibodies, a single-walled carbon nanotube (SWNT) modified by a novel immunoadjuvant, glycated chitosan (GC), was used for the treatment of metastatic mammary tumors in mice. We treated the primary tumors by intratumoral administration of SWNT-GC, followed with irradiation with a 1064-nm laser to achieve local ablation through photothermal therapy (PTT). The treatment induced a systemic antitumor immunity which inhibited lung metastasis and prolonged the animal survival time of treated. Combining SWNT-GC-laser treatment with anti-CTLA-4 produced synergistic immunomodulatory effects and further extended the survival time of the treated mice. The results showed that the special combination, PTT + SWNT-GC + anti-CTLA, could effectively suppress primary tumors and inhibit metastases, providing a new treatment strategy for metastatic cancers.

N-Dihydrogalactochitosan Potentiates the Radiosensitivity of Liver Metastatic Tumor Cells Originated from Murine Breast Tumors.

Radiation is a widely used therapeutic method for treating breast cancer. N-dihydrogalactochitosan (GC), a biocompatible immunostimulant, is known to enhance the effects of various treatment modalities in different tumor types. However, whether GC can enhance the radiosensitivity of cancer cells remains to be explored. In this study, triple-negative murine 4T1 breast cancer cells transduced with multi-reporter genes were implanted in immunocompetent Balb/C mice to track, dissect, and identify liver-metastatic 4T1 cells. These cells expressed cancer stem cell (CSC) -related characteristics, including the ability to form spheroids, the expression of the CD44 marker, and the increase of protein stability. We then ex vivo investigated the potential effect of GC on the radiosensitivity of the liver-metastatic 4T1 breast cancer cells and compared the results to those of parental 4T1 cells subjected to the same treatment. The cells were irradiated with increased doses of X-rays with or without GC treatment. Colony formation assays were then performed to determine the survival fractions and radiosensitivity of these cells. We found that GC preferably increased the radiosensitivity of liver-metastatic 4T1 breast cancer cells rather than that of the parental cells. Additionally, the single-cell DNA electrophoresis assay (SCDEA) and γ-H2AX foci assay were performed to assess the level of double-stranded DNA breaks (DSBs). Compared to the parental cells, DNA damage was significantly increased in liver-metastatic 4T1 cells after they were treated with GC plus radiation. Further studies on apoptosis showed that this combination treatment increased the sub-G1 population of cells, but not caspase-3 cleavage, in liver-metastatic breast cancer cells. Taken together, the current data suggest that the synergistic effects of GC and irradiation might be used to enhance the efficacy of radiotherapy in treating metastatic tumors.

The Effect of Chitosan Derivatives on the Compaction and Tension Generation of the Fibroblast-populated Collagen Matrix.

Fibrotic diseases, such as Dupuytren's contracture (DC), involve excess scar tissue formation. The differentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts is a significant mechanism in DC, as it generates tissue contraction in areas without wound openings, leading to the deposition of scar tissue, and eventually flexing one or more fingers in a restrictive fashion. Additionally, DC has a high recurrence rate. Previously, we showed that N-dihydrogalactochitosan (GC), an immunostimulant, inhibited myofibroblast differentiation in a DC fibroblast culture. Our goal of this study was to expand our previous study to include other DC and normal cell lines and other chitosan derivatives (GC and single-walled carbon nanotube-conjugated GC) to determine the specific mechanism of inhibition. Derivative-incorporated and vehicle control (water) anchored fibroblast-populated collagen matrices (aFPCM) were used to monitor compaction (anchored matrix height reduction) using microscopy and optical coherence tomography (OCT) for six days. Fibroblasts were unable to compact chitosan derivative aFPCM to the same extent as vehicle control aFPCM in repeated experiments. Similarly, chitosan derivative aFPCM contracted less than control aFPCM when released from anchorage. Proliferative myofibroblasts were identified by the presence of alpha smooth muscle actin via myofibroblast proliferative assay. In all tested conditions, a small percentage of myofibroblasts and proliferative cells were present. However, when aFPCM were treated with transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-ß1), all tested samples demonstrated increased myofibroblasts, proliferation, compaction, and contraction. Although compaction and contraction were reduced, there was sufficient tension present in the chitosan derivative aFPCM to allow exogenous stimulation of the myofibroblast phenotype.

Determination of temperature distribution in tissue for interstitial cancer photothermal therapy.

BACKGROUND: Temperature increase in tumour tissue during photothermal therapy (PTT) is a significant factor in determining the outcomes of the treatment. Therefore, controlling and optimising temperature distribution in target tissue is crucial for PTT. In this study, we developed a unique ex vivo device to study the temperature distribution during PTT to be used as a guide for the desired photothermal effects for cancer treatment. METHODS: Bovine liver tissue buried inside agarose gel served as a phantom tumour surrounded by normal tissue. A thermostatic incubator was used to simulate tissue environment in live animals. The temperature distributions were measured by thermocouples with needle probes at different locations inside the target tissue, during laser irradiation using an 805-nm laser. RESULTS: The results obtained using the ex vivo device were verified by comparing the tissue temperature directly measured in animal tumours irradiated under the same conditions. With this model, the spatial distribution of temperature in target tissue can be monitored in real time. A two-dimensional temperature distribution in target tissue allows us to establish the correlations among laser parameters, temperature distribution and tumour size. In addition, the optimal temperature range for tumour destruction and immunological stimulation was determined using metastatic rat mammary tumour model. CONCLUSION: The device and method developed in this study can provide guidance for choosing the appropriate treatment parameters for optimal photothermal effects, particularly when combined with immunotherapy, for cancer treatment.

Laser immunotherapy for cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma with optimal thermal effects to enhance tumour immunogenicity.

BACKGROUND: Laser immunotherapy is a new anti-cancer therapy combining photothermal therapy and immunostimulation. It can eliminate the tumours by damaging tumour cells directly and promoting the release of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) to enhance tumour immunogenicity. The aim of this study was to investigate the thermal effects of laser immunotherapy and to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of laser immunotherapy for cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC). METHODS: The cell viability and the DAMPs productions of heat-treated cSCC A431 cells in different temperatures were investigated. Laser immunotherapy with the optimal thermal effect for DAMPs production was performed on SKH-1 mice bearing ultraviolet-induced cSCC and a patient suffering from a large refractory cSCC. RESULTS: The temperature in the range of 45-50 °C killing half of A431 cells had an optimal thermal effect for the productions of DAMPs. The thermal effect could be further enhanced by local application of imiquimod, an immunoadjuvant. Laser immunotherapy eliminated most tumours and improved the survival rate of the ultraviolet-induced cSCC-bearing SKH-1 mice (p < 0.05). The patient with cSCC treated by laser immunotherapy experienced a significant tumour reduction after laser immunotherapy increased the amounts of infiltrating lymphocytes in the tumour. No obviously adverse effect was observed in the mice experiment or in the clinical application. CONCLUSIONS: Our results strongly indicate that laser immunotherapy with optimal thermal effects is an effective and safe treatment modality for cSCC.

In situ photoimmunotherapy for cutaneous granuloma caused by itraconazole-resistant Candida guilliermondii.

Cutaneous granulomas caused by Candida guilliermondii are difficult to cure. In situ photoimmunotherapy (ISPI) is a novel method composed of local photothermal therapy and immunoadjuvant. In this study, ISPI was used the first time clinically for cutaneous granuloma caused by itraconazole-resistant C.guilliermondii. A 10-week cycle of ISPI was composed of (1) 5% imiquimod applied topically every other day and (2) irradiation of lesions with an 808-nm diode laser at Days 14, 28, 42, and 56. Here we report our first case. A patient was treated with ISPI for four cycles. After the treatment, the lesions were eliminated without recurrence during a 12-month follow-up. Our results demonstrate that ISPI can be used as an effective treatment modality for cutaneous fungal granuloma.

Interstitial photoacoustic sensor for the measurement of tissue temperature during interstitial laser phototherapy.

Photothermal therapy is an effective means to induce tumor cell death, since tumor tissue is more sensitive to temperature increases than normal tissue. Biological responses depend on tissue temperature; target tissue temperature needs to be precisely measured and controlled to achieve desired thermal effects. In this work, a unique photoacoustic (PA) sensor is proposed for temperature measurement during interstitial laser phototherapy. A continuous-wave laser light and a pulsed laser light, for photothermal irradiation and photoacoustic temperature measurement, respectively, were delivered to the target tissue through a fiber coupler. During laser irradiation, the PA amplitude was measured. The Grüneisen parameter and the bioheat equation were used to determine the temperature in strategic positions in the target tissue. Our results demonstrate that the interstitial PA amplitude is a linear function of temperature in the range of 22 to 55 °C, as confirmed by thermocouple measurement. Furthermore, by choosing appropriate laser parameters, the maximum temperature surrounding the active diffuse fiber tip in tissue can be controlled in the range of 41 to 55 °C. Thus, this sensor could potentially be used for fast, accurate, and convenient three-dimensional temperature measurement, and for real-time feedback and control of interstitial laser phototherapy in cancer treatment.

Optical properties of tissues quantified using morphological granulometry from phase-contrast images of thin tissue samples.

A method combining morphological granulometry with Mie theory to determine optical scattering in biological tissues was proposed. Otsu's method was applied to binarize phase-contrast images. Binary morphological granulometry was used to estimate size density distribution of the tissue samples based on the binary phase-contrast images. Our results showed that the optical parameters associated with light scattering in tissue could be quantitatively determined by combining size density distribution with Mie theory. It was suggested that this unique method could be used to characterize biological tissues for disease diagnosis.

Character of skin on photo-thermal response and its regeneration process using second-harmonic generation microscopy.

Quantitative characterization of skin collagen on photo-thermal response and its regeneration process is an important but difficult task. In this study, morphology and spectrum characteristics of collagen during photo-thermal response and its light-induced remodeling process were obtained by second-harmonic generation microscope in vivo. The texture feature of collagen orientation index and fractal dimension was extracted by image processing. The aim of this study is to detect the information hidden in skin texture during the process of photo-thermal response and its regeneration. The quantitative relations between injured collagen and texture feature were established for further analysis of the injured characteristics. Our results show that it is feasible to determine the main impacts of phototherapy on the skin. It is important to understand the process of collagen remodeling after photo-thermal injuries from texture feature.

Photothermal therapy improves the efficacy of topical immunotherapy against melanoma.

BACKGROUND: Melanoma is an aggressive cancer with poor response to traditional therapies. A combination of photothermal therapy and topical immunotherapy is expected to eliminate melanoma effectively. MATERIALS AND METHODS: C57BL/6 mice with early stage and metastatic melanoma were treated with laser immunotherapy (LIT), combining near-infrared laser-based photothermal therapy (PTT) and topical imiquimod (IMQ)-based immunotherapy. The volume of primary and abscopal melanoma, animal survival, tissue temperature, transcriptome, and immune cell response were investigated to evaluate the effect of LIT. RESULTS: LIT could eliminate primary tumors, inhibited abscopal tumors, and prolonged animal survival. The tumor tissues were selectively destroyed under a photothermal gradient between 38.2 ± 3.7°C and 73.0 ± 2.3°C. Gene expression analysis showed a significant increase in the expression of damage associated molecular patterns. Additionally, the expression of mature dendritic cells, CD4+ T cells, and CD8+ T cells were increased, while myeloid-derived suppressor cells were downregulated after LIT. CONCLUSION: The study showed that LIT inhibited the growth of both primary and abscopal melanoma by activating systemic antitumor immune responses and reversing the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, making LIT a potential method for advanced melanoma treatment.

Primary Human Breast Cancer-Associated Endothelial Cells Favor Interactions with Nanomedicines.

Cancer nanomedicines predominately rely on transport processes controlled by tumor-associated endothelial cells to deliver therapeutic and diagnostic payloads into solid tumors. While the dominant role of this class of endothelial cells for nanoparticle transport and tumor delivery is established in animal models, the translational potential in human cells needs exploration. Using primary human breast cancer as a model, the differential interactions of normal and tumor-associated endothelial cells with clinically relevant nanomedicine formulations are explored and quantified. Primary human breast cancer-associated endothelial cells exhibit up to ≈2 times higher nanoparticle uptake than normal human mammary microvascular endothelial cells. Super-resolution imaging studies reveal a significantly higher intracellular vesicle number for tumor-associated endothelial cells, indicating a substantial increase in cellular transport activities. RNA sequencing and gene expression analysis indicate the upregulation of transport-related genes, especially motor protein genes, in tumor-associated endothelial cells. Collectively, the results demonstrate that primary human breast cancer-associated endothelial cells exhibit enhanced interactions with nanomedicines, suggesting a potentially significant role for these cells in nanoparticle tumor delivery in human patients. Engineering nanoparticles that leverage the translational potential of tumor-associated endothelial cell-mediated transport into human solid tumors may lead to the development of safer and more effective clinical cancer nanomedicines.

N-dihydrogalactochitosan serves as an effective mucosal adjuvant for intranasal vaccine in combination with recombinant viral proteins against respiratory infection.

Mucosal vaccinations for respiratory pathogens provide effective protection as they stimulate localized cellular and humoral immunities at the site of infection. Currently, the major limitation of intranasal vaccination is using effective adjuvants capable of withstanding the harsh environment imposed by the mucosa. Herein, we describe the efficacy of using a unique biopolymer, N-dihydrogalactochitosan (GC), as a nasal mucosal vaccine adjuvant against respiratory infections. Specifically, we mixed GC with recombinant SARS-CoV-2 trimeric spike (S) and nucleocapsid (NC) proteins to intranasally vaccinate K18-hACE2 transgenic mice, in comparison with Addavax (AV), an MF-59 equivalent. In contrast to AV, intranasal application of GC induces a robust, systemic antigen-specific antibody response and increases the number of T cells in the cervical lymph nodes. Moreover, GC+S+NC-vaccinated animals were largely resistant to the lethal SARS-CoV-2 challenge and experienced drastically reduced morbidity and mortality, with animal weights and behavior returning to normal 22 days post-infection. In contrast, animals intranasally vaccinated with AV+S+NC experienced severe weight loss, mortality, and respiratory distress, with none surviving beyond 6 days post-infection. Our findings demonstrate that GC can serve as a potent mucosal vaccine adjuvant against SARS-CoV-2 and potentially other respiratory viruses. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: We demonstrated that a unique biopolymer, N-dihydrogalactochitosan (GC), was an effective nasal mucosal vaccine adjuvant against respiratory infections. Specifically, we mixed GC with recombinant SARS-CoV-2 trimeric spike (S) and nucleocapsid (NC) proteins to intranasally vaccinate K18-hACE2 transgenic mice, in comparison with Addavax (AV). In contrast to AV, GC induces a robust, systemic antigen-specific antibody response and increases the number of T cells in the cervical lymph nodes. About 90 % of the GC+S+NC-vaccinated animals survived the lethal SARS-CoV-2 challenge and remained healthy 22 days post-infection, while the AV+S+NC-vaccinated animals experienced severe weight loss and respiratory distress, and all died within 6 days post-infection. Our findings demonstrate that GC is a potent mucosal vaccine adjuvant against SARS-CoV-2 and potentially other respiratory viruses.

Optical coherence tomography for multicellular tumor spheroid category recognition and drug screening classification via multi-spatial-superficial-parameter and machine learning.

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is an ideal imaging technique for noninvasive and longitudinal monitoring of multicellular tumor spheroids (MCTS). However, the internal structure features within MCTS from OCT images are still not fully utilized. In this study, we developed cross-statistical, cross-screening, and composite-hyperparameter feature processing methods in conjunction with 12 machine learning models to assess changes within the MCTS internal structure. Our results indicated that the effective features combined with supervised learning models successfully classify OVCAR-8 MCTS culturing with 5,000 and 50,000 cell numbers, MCTS with pancreatic tumor cells (Panc02-H7) culturing with the ratio of 0%, 33%, 50%, and 67% of fibroblasts, and OVCAR-4 MCTS treated by 2-methoxyestradiol, AZD1208, and R-ketorolac with concentrations of 1, 10, and 25 µM. This approach holds promise for obtaining multi-dimensional physiological and functional evaluations for using OCT and MCTS in anticancer studies.

Parallel mitral and tufted cell pathways route distinct odor information to different targets in the olfactory cortex.

Odor signals are conveyed from the olfactory bulb to the olfactory cortex (OC) by mitral cells (MCs) and tufted cells (TCs). However, whether and how the two types of projection neuron differ in function and axonal connectivity is still poorly understood. Odor responses and axonal projection patterns were compared between MCs and TCs in mice by visualizing axons of electrophysiologically identified single neurons. TCs demonstrated shorter onset latency for reliable responses than MCs. The shorter latency response of TCs was maintained in a wide range of odor concentrations, whereas MCs responded only to strong signals. Furthermore, individual TCs projected densely to focal targets only in anterior areas of the OC, whereas individual MCs dispersedly projected to all OC areas. Surprisingly, in anterior OC areas, the two cell types projected to segregated subareas. These results suggest that MCs and TCs transmit temporally distinct odor information to different OC targets.

Chitin, chitosan, and glycated chitosan regulate immune responses: the novel adjuvants for cancer vaccine.

With the development of cancer immunotherapy, cancer vaccine has become a novel modality for cancer treatment, and the important role of adjuvant has been realized recently. Chitin, chitosan, and their derivatives have shown their advantages as adjuvants for cancer vaccine. In this paper, the adjuvant properties of chitin and chitosan were discussed, and some detailed information about glycated chitosan and chitosan nanoparticles was also presented to illustrate the trend for future development.

Immune modulations of the tumor microenvironment in response to phototherapy.

The tumor microenvironment (TME) promotes pro-tumor and anti-inflammatory metabolisms and suppresses the host immune system. It prevents immune cells from fighting against cancer effectively, resulting in limited efficacy of many current cancer treatment modalities. Different therapies aim to overcome the immunosuppressive TME by combining various approaches to synergize their effects for enhanced anti-tumor activity and augmented stimulation of the immune system. Immunotherapy has become a major therapeutic strategy because it unleashes the power of the immune system by activating, enhancing, and directing immune responses to prevent, control, and eliminate cancer. Phototherapy uses light irradiation to induce tumor cell death through photothermal, photochemical, and photo-immunological interactions. Phototherapy induces tumor immunogenic cell death, which is a precursor and enhancer for anti-tumor immunity. However, phototherapy alone has limited effects on long-term and systemic anti-tumor immune responses. Phototherapy can be combined with immunotherapy to improve the tumoricidal effect by killing target tumor cells, enhancing immune cell infiltration in tumors, and rewiring pathways in the TME from anti-inflammatory to pro-inflammatory. Phototherapy-enhanced immunotherapy triggers effective cooperation between innate and adaptive immunities, specifically targeting the tumor cells, whether they are localized or distant. Herein, the successes and limitations of phototherapy combined with other cancer treatment modalities will be discussed. Specifically, we will review the synergistic effects of phototherapy combined with different cancer therapies on tumor elimination and remodeling of the immunosuppressive TME. Overall, phototherapy, in combination with other therapeutic modalities, can establish anti-tumor pro-inflammatory phenotypes in activated tumor-infiltrating T cells and B cells and activate systemic anti-tumor immune responses.

Single-cell transcriptomics reveals that tumor-infiltrating natural killer cells are activated by localized ablative immunotherapy and share anti-tumor signatures induced by immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Rationale: Natural killer (NK) cells provide protective anti-cancer immunity. However, the cancer therapy induced activation gene signatures and pathways in NK cells remain unclear. Methods: We applied a novel localized ablative immunotherapy (LAIT) by synergizing photothermal therapy (PTT) with intra-tumor delivering of the immunostimulant N-dihydrogalactochitosan (GC), to treat breast cancer using a mammary tumor virus-polyoma middle tumor-antigen (MMTV-PyMT) mouse model. We performed single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNAseq) analysis to unveil the cellular heterogeneity and compare the transcriptional alterations induced by PTT, GC, and LAIT in NK cells within the tumor microenvironment (TME). Results: ScRNAseq showed that NK subtypes, including cycling, activated, interferon-stimulated, and cytotoxic NK cells. Trajectory analysis revealed a route toward activation and cytotoxicity following pseudotime progression. Both GC and LAIT elevated gene expression associated with NK cell activation, cytolytic effectors, activating receptors, IFN pathway components, and cytokines/chemokines in NK subtypes. Single-cell transcriptomics analysis using immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI)-treated animal and human samples revealed that ICI-induced NK activation and cytotoxicity across several cancer types. Furthermore, ICI-induced NK gene signatures were also induced by LAIT treatment. We also discovered that several types of cancer patients had significantly longer overall survival when they had higher expression of genes in NK cells that were also specifically upregulated by LAIT. Conclusion: Our findings show for the first time that LAIT activates cytotoxicity in NK cells and the upregulated genes positively correlate with beneficial clinical outcomes for cancer patients. More importantly, our results further establish the correlation between the effects of LAIT and ICI on NK cells, hence expanding our understanding of mechanism of LAIT in remodeling TME and shedding light on the potentials of NK cell activation and anti-tumor cytotoxic functions in clinical applications.