For Whom the Mind Wanders, and When, Varies Across Laboratory and Daily-Life Settings.

Undergraduates ( N = 274) participated in a weeklong daily-life experience-sampling study of mind wandering after being assessed in the lab for executive-control abilities (working memory capacity; attention-restraint ability; attention-constraint ability; and propensity for task-unrelated thoughts, or TUTs) and personality traits. Eight times a day, electronic devices prompted subjects to report on their current thoughts and context. Working memory capacity and attention abilities predicted subjects' TUT rates in the lab, but predicted the frequency of daily-life mind wandering only as a function of subjects' momentary attempts to concentrate. This pattern replicates prior daily-life findings but conflicts with laboratory findings. Results for personality factors also revealed different associations in the lab and daily life: Only neuroticism predicted TUT rate in the lab, but only openness predicted mind-wandering rate in daily life (both predicted the content of daily-life mind wandering). Cognitive and personality factors also predicted dimensions of everyday thought other than mind wandering, such as subjective judgments of controllability of thought. Mind wandering in people's daily environments and TUTs during controlled and artificial laboratory tasks have different correlates (and perhaps causes). Thus, mind-wandering theories based solely on lab phenomena may be incomplete.

Neurocognition in psychometrically defined college Schizotypy samples: we are not measuring the "right stuff".

Although neurocognitive deficits are an integral characteristic of schizophrenia, there is inconclusive evidence as to whether they manifest across the schizophrenia-spectrum. We conducted two studies and a meta-analysis comparing neurocognitive functioning between psychometrically defined schizotypy and control groups recruited from a college population. Study One compared groups on measures of specific and global neurocognition, and subjective and objective quality of life. Study Two examined working memory and subjective cognitive complaints. Across both studies, the schizotypy group showed notably decreased subjective (d51.52) and objective (d51.02) quality of life and greater subjective cognitive complaints (d51.88); however, neurocognition was normal across all measures (d's,.35). Our meta-analysis of 33 studies examining neurocognition in at-risk college students revealed between-group differences in the negligible effect size range for most domains. The schizotypy group demonstrated deficits of a small effect size for working memory and set-shifting abilities. Although at-risk individuals report relatively profound neurocognitive deficits and impoverished quality of life, neurocognitive functioning assessed behaviorally is largely intact. Our data suggest that traditionally defined neurocognitive deficits do not approximate the magnitude of subjective complaints associated with psychometrically defined schizotypy.

Working memory performance is related to childhood trauma but not psychotic-like experiences in a nonpsychiatric sample.

OBJECTIVE: This project seeks to clarify the impact of childhood trauma and psychotic-like experiences (PLEs) on working memory (WM) and explore gender differences in these relationships. The effect of childhood trauma on WM performance has yet to be explored in individuals with PLEs, despite consistent associations between trauma, psychosis spectrum symptoms, and WM performance. METHOD: In 466 undergraduates, positive PLEs (Prodromal Questionnaire) and trauma (Childhood Trauma Questionnaire) were examined to determine contributions to WM performance on a spatial n-back task. We conducted hierarchical linear regressions on the total sample and stratified by gender to examine the effects of childhood trauma, positive PLEs, and their interaction on WM performance. Supplemental analyses explored attenuated negative and disorganized symptoms. RESULTS: Controlling for age, there were no significant main effects of positive PLEs, childhood trauma, their interaction, or three-way interaction including gender in predicting WM. After stratifying by gender, childhood trauma was significantly associated with poorer WM in females only. Post hoc analyses revealed that in the full sample, physical neglect predicted WM performance and was a trend for females, while sexual abuse trended toward predicting WM in males. Supplemental analyses of attenuated negative and disorganized symptoms revealed childhood trauma significantly predicted WM in the full sample and females only for negative symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Females who have experienced childhood trauma may be at greater risk for WM problems, irrespective of co-occurring PLEs, suggesting that cognitive difficulties may be partially attributable to history of trauma. These findings have potential implications for intervention strategies in trauma-exposed individuals. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Associations of psychotic-like experiences, related symptoms, and working memory with functioning.

This study examined the association of spatial working memory and attenuated psychotic-like experiences and related symptoms with social and role functioning. Findings from this study suggest that symptom dimensions and working memory impairment were associated with diminished functioning across a variety of domains. Specifically, negative symptoms and working memory impairment were inversely associated with both social and role functioning, whereas positive and disorganized symptoms showed inverse associations with social functioning only. Symptom dimensions did not moderate cognitive and functional variables, although working memory and attenuated clinical symptoms had an additive effect on functioning. Post-hoc analyses examining symptom dimensions simultaneously showed negative symptoms to be the variable most strongly predictive of overall functioning. These findings suggest that even in a non-clinical sample, sub-threshold psychosis symptoms and cognition may influence people's social and role functioning.

Association of multidimensional schizotypy with psychotic-like experiences, affect, and social functioning in daily life: Comparable findings across samples and schizotypy measures.

The present study examined the associations of positive, negative, and disorganized schizotypy with psychotic-like experiences, affect, and social functioning in daily life using experience sampling methodology (ESM) in 2 samples (ns = 165 and 203) that employed different measures of schizotypy. Schizotypy is a useful framework for understanding schizophrenia-spectrum psychopathology, and ESM offers a powerful approach for assessing schizotypy in real-world settings. Participants were signaled 8 times daily for 7 days to complete ESM questionnaires. As hypothesized, positive schizotypy was robustly associated with psychotic-like experiences in daily life, whereas negative schizotypy was associated with negative experiences, diminished positive affect, and social disinterest in both samples. As expected, disorganized schizotypy was associated with disorganization in daily life. Furthermore, it was associated with increased negative affect and diminished positive affect. Thus, positive, negative, and disorganized schizotypy were associated with unique, hypothesized patterns of experiences in daily life, and the findings across the two samples and two schizotypy measures were strikingly consistent. Note that when disorganized schizotypy was not entered as a predictor in the 2 samples, disorganized experiences and negative affect in daily life were associated with positive schizotypy. However, when disorganized schizotypy was included as a predictor, these daily life experiences were associated with disorganized, not positive, schizotypy. This is similar to findings from interview and questionnaire studies that have simultaneously assessed positive, negative, and disorganized schizotypy. The findings support the construct validity of the multidimensional model of schizotypy and the importance of including disorganization in the conceptualization and assessment of schizotypy. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

The characteristics of cognitive neuroscience tests in a schizophrenia cognition clinical trial: Psychometric properties and correlations with standard measures.

In comparison to batteries of standard neuropsychological tests, cognitive neuroscience tests may offer a more specific assessment of discrete neurobiological processes that may be aberrant in schizophrenia. However, more information regarding psychometric properties and correlations with standard neuropsychological tests and functional measures is warranted to establish their validity as treatment outcome measures. The N-back and AX-Continuous Performance Task (AX-CPT) are two promising cognitive neuroscience tests designed to measure specific components of working memory and contextual processing respectively. In the current study, we report the psychometric properties of multiple outcome measures from these two tests as well as their correlations with standard neuropsychological measures and functional capacity measures. The results suggest that while the AX-CPT and N-back display favorable psychometric properties, they do not exhibit greater sensitivity or specificity with functional measures than standard neurocognitive tests.

Aberrant Salience Across Levels of Processing in Positive and Negative Schizotypy.

Schizotypy is a multidimensional construct conceptualized as the expression of the underlying vulnerability for schizophrenia. Certain traits of positive schizotypy, such as odd beliefs, unusual perceptual experiences, suspiciousness, and referential thinking show associations with aberrant salience. Positive schizotypy may involve hyper-attribution of salience toward insignificant events, whereas negative schizotypy may involve hypo-attribution of salience, even toward important events. Attribution of salience is thought to involve dopamine-mediated processes, a mechanism that is disrupted in schizotypy; however, little is known about the cognitive processes potentially underlying salience attribution. The present study assessed the relationship between aberrant salience and latent inhibition (LI), as well as their associations with positive and negative schizotypy. Salience was measured at various stages of processing, including visual salience, attributions of salience to contingency illusions, and self-reported experience of salience. Schizotypy traits were differentially associated with self-reported aberrant salience experiences: positive schizotypy showed positive associations (ß = 0.67, f2 = 0.82, large effect) and negative schizotypy showed inverse associations (ß = -0.20, f2 = 0.07, small effect). However, neither schizotypy dimension was associated with visual salience, contingency illusions, or LI. Salience processing across perceptual, cognitive, and experiential levels likely involves different mechanisms, some of which may not show major disruption in subclinical manifestations of schizotypy.

A meta-analysis of context integration deficits across the schizotypy spectrum using AX-CPT and DPX tasks.

Schizotypy and schizophrenia involve disrupted context integration (CI), the ability to assimilate internal and external information into coherent mental representations. Research has primarily examined patients with schizophrenia, with fewer studies assessing CI in schizotypy-spectrum groups. The literature shows overall CI deficits, but mixed results for specific performance patterns and associations with clinical symptoms. Furthermore, conclusions are limited by small samples and heterogeneity across studies. To examine CI deficits across the schizotypy spectrum using AX-Continuous Performance Task (CPT) and Dot Pattern Expectancy task (DPX) performance. Systematic review involved searching 4 databases and 12 journals, examining key references, and contacting 227 researchers for published and unpublished data. Search terms included AX-CPT/DPX/dot pattern expectancy task/CNTRACs/context* integration/context* processing and schizo*/prodromal/high risk/psychosis; context* and ultra high risk. Independent data from studies with diagnostically or psychometrically assessed schizotypy-spectrum groups and AX-CPT/DPX tasks with 10+ trials and 60+% AX trials were included. Articles were independently coded by two authors using predefined coding schemes with good agreement. Meta-analyses pooled outcomes using random-effects models. Forty-one studies met inclusion criteria. CI impairment was present across the schizotypy spectrum. CI deficits in schizophrenia were substantial and associated with disorganized and negative symptoms. Outcomes were comparable between patients with chronic and first-episode schizophrenia. At-risk groups demonstrated moderate CI impairment. Results were robust across task parameters and there was no evidence that reporting biases grossly impacted outcomes. Findings lend support to theories suggesting that CI is a stable vulnerability factor for schizophrenia. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Expression of schizophrenia-spectrum personality traits in daily life.

The present study examined the expression of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM-5) schizotypal, schizoid, and paranoid personality disorder (PD) traits in daily life using experience sampling methodology in 206 nonclinically ascertained Spanish young adults oversampled for risk for schizophrenia-spectrum psychopathology. This study examined the overlap and differentiation of pathological personality traits in daily life settings, according to both diagnostic and multidimensional models. Daily life outcomes differentiated among schizophrenia-spectrum disorders. The assignment of Cluster A personality traits to positive, negative, paranoid, and disorganized dimensions provided an alternative to the traditional PD diagnoses. Positive, disorganized, and paranoid schizotypy were associated with elevated stress reactivity, whereas negative schizotypy was associated with diminished reactivity in daily life. The current diagnostic model is limited by the considerable overlap among the PD traits. Nonetheless, experience sampling methodology is sensitive enough to detect differences in day-to-day impairment and can be a powerful research tool for the examination of dynamic constructs such as personality pathology. (PsycINFO Database Record

Are synesthetes exceptional beyond their synesthetic associations? A systematic comparison of creativity, personality, cognition, and mental imagery in synesthetes and controls.

Synesthesia has historically been linked with enhanced creativity, but this had never been demonstrated in a systematically recruited sample. The current study offers a broad examination of creativity, personality, cognition, and mental imagery in a small sample of systematically recruited synesthetes and controls (n = 65). Synesthetes scored higher on some measures of creativity, personality traits of absorption and openness, and cognitive abilities of verbal comprehension and mental imagery. The differences were smaller than those reported in the literature, indicating that previous studies may have overestimated group differences, perhaps due to biased recruitment procedures. Nonetheless, most of our results replicated literature findings, yielding two possibilities: (1) our study was influenced by similar biases, or (2) differences between synesthetes and controls, though modest, are robust across recruitment methods. The covariance among our measures warrants interpretation of these differences as a pattern of associations with synesthesia, leaving open the possibility that this pattern could be explained by differences on a single measured trait, or even a hidden, untested trait. More generally, this study highlights the difficulty of comparing groups of people in psychology, not to mention neuropsychology and neuroimaging studies. The requirements discussed here - systematic recruitment procedures, large battery of tests, and large cohorts - are best fulfilled through collaborative efforts and cumulative science.

Individual differences in the executive control of attention, memory, and thought, and their associations with schizotypy.

A large correlational study took a latent-variable approach to the generality of executive control by testing the individual-differences structure of executive-attention capabilities and assessing their prediction of schizotypy, a multidimensional construct (with negative, positive, disorganized, and paranoid factors) conveying risk for schizophrenia. Although schizophrenia is convincingly linked to executive deficits, the schizotypy literature is equivocal. Subjects completed tasks of working memory capacity (WMC), attention restraint (inhibiting prepotent responses), and attention constraint (focusing visual attention amid distractors), the latter 2 in an effort to fractionate the "inhibition" construct. We also assessed mind-wandering propensity (via in-task thought probes) and coefficient of variation in response times (RT CoV) from several tasks as more novel indices of executive attention. WMC, attention restraint, attention constraint, mind wandering, and RT CoV were correlated but separable constructs, indicating some distinctions among "attention control" abilities; WMC correlated more strongly with attentional restraint than constraint, and mind wandering correlated more strongly with attentional restraint, attentional constraint, and RT CoV than with WMC. Across structural models, no executive construct predicted negative schizotypy and only mind wandering and RT CoV consistently (but modestly) predicted positive, disorganized, and paranoid schizotypy; stalwart executive constructs in the schizophrenia literature-WMC and attention restraint-showed little to no predictive power, beyond restraint's prediction of paranoia. Either executive deficits are consequences rather than risk factors for schizophrenia, or executive failures barely precede or precipitate diagnosable schizophrenia symptoms. (PsycINFO Database Record

Correction to Kane et al. (2016).

Reports an error in "Individual differences in the executive control of attention, memory, and thought, and their associations with schizotypy" by Michael J. Kane, Matt E. Meier, Bridget A. Smeekens, Georgina M. Gross, Charlotte A. Chun, Paul J. Silvia and Thomas R. Kwapil (Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 2016[Aug], Vol 145[8], 1017-1048). There were errors in Table 3 and Table 7 (these transcription errors were limited to descriptive statistics in the Tables and did not affect any inferential statistics). In Table 3, the ARRO-TUT and LETT-TUT variables had incorrect values for Mean [95% CI], SD, Skew, Kurtosis, and N. In Table 7, the same values (plus Min and Max) were incorrect for the SEM-SART variable. The correct values for these measures are presented in the correction (the values for Min and Max were correct as set in Table 3, but are repeated below for clarity). (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2016-29680-001.) A large correlational study took a latent-variable approach to the generality of executive control by testing the individual-differences structure of executive-attention capabilities and assessing their prediction of schizotypy, a multidimensional construct (with negative, positive, disorganized, and paranoid factors) conveying risk for schizophrenia. Although schizophrenia is convincingly linked to executive deficits, the schizotypy literature is equivocal. Subjects completed tasks of working memory capacity (WMC), attention restraint (inhibiting prepotent responses), and attention constraint (focusing visual attention amid distractors), the latter 2 in an effort to fractionate the "inhibition" construct. We also assessed mind-wandering propensity (via in-task thought probes) and coefficient of variation in response times (RT CoV) from several tasks as more novel indices of executive attention. WMC, attention restraint, attention constraint, mind wandering, and RT CoV were correlated but separable constructs, indicating some distinctions among "attention control" abilities; WMC correlated more strongly with attentional restraint than constraint, and mind wandering correlated more strongly with attentional restraint, attentional constraint, and RT CoV than with WMC. Across structural models, no executive construct predicted negative schizotypy and only mind wandering and RT CoV consistently (but modestly) predicted positive, disorganized, and paranoid schizotypy; stalwart executive constructs in the schizophrenia literature-WMC and attention restraint-showed little to no predictive power, beyond restraint's prediction of paranoia. Either executive deficits are consequences rather than risk factors for schizophrenia, or executive failures barely precede or precipitate diagnosable schizophrenia symptoms. (PsycINFO Database Record

Attachment style predicts affect, cognitive appraisals, and social functioning in daily life.

The way in which attachment styles are expressed in the moment as individuals navigate their real-life settings has remained an area largely untapped by attachment research. The present study examined how adult attachment styles are expressed in daily life using experience sampling methodology (ESM) in a sample of 206 Spanish young adults. Participants were administered the Attachment Style Interview (ASI) and received personal digital assistants that signaled them randomly eight times per day for 1 week to complete questionnaires about their current experiences and social context. As hypothesized, participants' momentary affective states, cognitive appraisals, and social functioning varied in meaningful ways as a function of their attachment style. Individuals with an anxious attachment, as compared with securely attached individuals, endorsed experiences that were congruent with hyperactivating tendencies, such as higher negative affect, stress, and perceived social rejection. By contrast, individuals with an avoidant attachment, relative to individuals with a secure attachment, endorsed experiences that were consistent with deactivating tendencies, such as decreased positive states and a decreased desire to be with others when alone. Furthermore, the expression of attachment styles in social contexts was shown to be dependent upon the subjective appraisal of the closeness of social contacts, and not merely upon the presence of social interactions. The findings support the ecological validity of the ASI and the person-by-situation character of attachment theory. Moreover, they highlight the utility of ESM for investigating how the predictions derived from attachment theory play out in the natural flow of real life.

Predicting creativity: the role of psychometric schizotypy and cannabis use in divergent thinking.

Evidence suggests that divergent thinking (DT), a measure of creativity, is associated with positive schizotypy and cannabis use. Given the high rates of cannabis use among those with schizotypy, it is unclear if the relation of DT to schizotypy is due to co-occurring cannabis use. In this study, we examined the relations between DT, schizotypy, and cannabis use among positive schizotypy (n=66), negative schizotypy (n=22), and non-schizotypy (n=60) groups. Results revealed that DT was greater in the positive schizotypy group, on the order of small to medium effects, compared to negative and non-schizotypy groups. Cannabis use and DT were associated in the non-schizotypy group, but not in the positive or negative schizotypy groups. Across all groups, positive schizotypy significantly predicted DT; however, cannabis use was not a significant predictor of DT. In line with previous findings, cannabis use and DT were only related in individuals low in creativity. This suggests that a ceiling effect may be present, with only cannabis users who are low in creativity receiving any increase in DT. Future research should aim to clarify the DT-cannabis relationship.

Mirror-touch and ticker tape experiences in synesthesia.

A fundamental question in the field of synesthesia is whether it is associated with other cognitive phenomena. The current study examined synesthesia's connections with phenomenal traits of mirror-touch and ticker tape experiences, as well as the representation of the three phenomena in the population, across gender and domain of work/study. Mirror-touch is the automatic, involuntary experience of tactile sensation on one's own body when others are being touched. For example, seeing another person's arm being stroked can evoke physical touch sensation on one's own arm. Ticker tape is the automatic visualization of spoken words or thoughts, such as a teleprompter. For example, when spoken to, a ticker taper might see mentally the spoken words displayed in front of his face or as coming out of the speaker's mouth. To explore synesthesia's associations with these phenomena, a diverse group (n = 3743) was systematically recruited from eight universities and one public museum in France to complete an online screening. Of the 1017 eligible respondents, synesthetes (across all subtypes) reported higher rates of mirror-touch and ticker tape than non-synesthetes, suggesting that synesthesia is associated with these phenomenal traits. However, effect sizes were small and we could not rule out that response bias influenced these associations. Mirror-touch and ticker tape were independent. No differences were found across gender or domain of work and study in prevalence of synesthesia, mirror-touch or ticker tape. The prevalence of ticker tape, unknown so far, was estimated at about 7%, an intermediate rate between estimates of grapheme-color (2-4%) and sequence-space synesthesia (9-14%). Within synesthesia, grapheme-personification, also called ordinal-linguistic personification (OLP) was the most common subtype and was estimated around 12%. Co-occurences of the different types of synesthesia were higher than chance, though at the level of small effect sizes.

Psychometric schizotypy predicts psychotic-like, paranoid, and negative symptoms in daily life.

Positive and negative schizotypy exhibit differential patterns of impairment in social relations, affect, and functioning in daily life. However, studies have not examined the association of schizotypy with real-world expression of psychotic-like, paranoid, and negative symptoms. The present study employed experience-sampling methodology (ESM) to assess positive and negative schizotypy in daily life in a nonclinical sample of 206 Spanish young adults. Participants were prompted randomly 8 times daily for 1 week to complete assessments of their current symptoms and experiences. Positive schizotypy was associated with psychotic-like and paranoid symptoms in daily life. Negative schizotypy was associated with a subset of these symptoms and with negative symptoms in daily life. Momentary stress was associated with psychotic-like and paranoid symptoms, but only for those high in positive schizotypy. Social stress predicted momentary psychotic-like symptoms in both positive and negative schizotypy. Time-lagged analyses indicated that stress at the preceding signal predicted psychotic-like symptoms at the current assessment, but only for individuals high in positive schizotypy. The results are consistent with models linking stress sensitivity with the experience of psychotic symptoms. The findings provide cross-cultural support for the multidimensional model of schizotypy and schizophrenia. Furthermore, the findings demonstrate that ESM is an effective method for predicting the experience of psychotic-like symptoms, as well as their precursors, in daily life.