Ticks and spirochetes of the genus Borrelia in urban areas of Central-Western Poland.

Due to the extensive use of green urban areas as recreation places, city residents are exposed to tick-borne pathogens. The objectives of our study were (i) to determine the occurrence of ticks in urban green areas, focussing on areas used by humans such as parks, schools and kindergartens, and urban forests, and (ii) to assess the prevalence of Borrelia infections in ticks in Zielona Góra, a medium-sized city in western Poland. A total of 161 ticks representing the two species Ixodes ricinus (34 males, 51 females, 30 nymphs) and Dermacentor reticulatus (20 males, 26 females) were collected from 29 of 72 (40.3%) study sites. In total, 26.1% of the ticks (85.7% of I. ricinus and 14.3% of D. reticulatus) yielded DNA of Borrelia. The difference in the infection rate between I. ricinus and D. reticulatus was significant. Among infected ticks, the most frequent spirochete species were B. lusitaniae (50.0%) and B. afzelii (26.2%), followed by B. spielmanii (9.5%), B. valaisiana (7.1%), B. burgdorferi sensu stricto, (4.8%) and B. miyamotoi (2.4%). No co-infections were found. We did not observe a correlation in the occurrence of Borrelia spirochetes in ticks found in individual study sites that differed in terms of habitat type and height of vegetation. Our findings demonstrate that the Borrelia transmission cycles are active within urban habitats, pointing the need for monitoring of tick-borne pathogens in public green areas. They could serve as guidelines for authorities for the proper management of urban green spaces in a way that may limit tick populations and the potential health risks posed by tick-borne pathogens.

EVI and NDVI as proxies for multifaceted avian diversity in urban areas.

Most ecological studies use remote sensing to analyze broad-scale biodiversity patterns, focusing mainly on taxonomic diversity in natural landscapes. One of the most important effects of high levels of urbanization is species loss (i.e., biotic homogenization). Therefore, cost-effective and more efficient methods to monitor biological communities' distribution are essential. This study explores whether the Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) and the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) can predict multifaceted avian diversity, urban tolerance, and specialization in urban landscapes. We sampled bird communities among 15 European cities and extracted Landsat 30-meter resolution EVI and NDVI values of the pixels within a 50-m buffer of bird sample points using Google Earth Engine (32-day Landsat 8 Collection Tier 1). Mixed models were used to find the best associations of EVI and NDVI, predicting multiple avian diversity facets: Taxonomic diversity, functional diversity, phylogenetic diversity, specialization levels, and urban tolerance. A total of 113 bird species across 15 cities from 10 different European countries were detected. EVI mean was the best predictor for foraging substrate specialization. NDVI mean was the best predictor for most avian diversity facets: taxonomic diversity, functional richness and evenness, phylogenetic diversity, phylogenetic species variability, community evolutionary distinctiveness, urban tolerance, diet foraging behavior, and habitat richness specialists. Finally, EVI and NDVI standard deviation were not the best predictors for any avian diversity facets studied. Our findings expand previous knowledge about EVI and NDVI as surrogates of avian diversity at a continental scale. Considering the European Commission's proposal for a Nature Restoration Law calling for expanding green urban space areas by 2050, we propose NDVI as a proxy of multiple facets of avian diversity to efficiently monitor bird community responses to land use changes in the cities.

Ticks on game animals in the fragmented agricultural landscape of western Poland.

Ticks (Acari: Ixodida) are well known external parasites of game animals that cause serious veterinary and medical problems. The occurrence and geographical distribution of different species of ticks in Western Poland have changed over the last decades. The purpose of the present study was to determine the species spectrum and prevalence of ticks parasitizing three species of game animals, the Eurasian wild boar Sus scrofa L., red deer Cervus elaphus L., and roe deer Capreolus capreolus (L.) in two hunting districts in Lubuskie Province. In addition, the distribution of ticks on the host's body and the intensity of infestation were determined. Ticks were collected from dead animals during the hunting seasons in 2013 and 2014, over the periods from May to June and from August to December. In total, 286 specimens were examined: 138 Eurasian wild boars, 8 red deers, and 140 roe deers. Altogether, 1891 ticks were collected. Three species of ticks were determined: Ixodes ricinus (L.), Dermacentor reticulatus (Fabricius, 1794), and Haemaphysalis concinna (C.L. Koch, 1844). H. concinna was recorded for the first time in Lubuskie Province.

Ticks (Acari: Ixodida) on birds (Aves) migrating through the Polish Baltic coast.

Seasonal bird (Aves) migration between breeding and wintering areas, often located on different continents, can facilitate the spreading of tick species (Acari: Ixodida) and of tick-borne pathogens. The aim of the study was to analyse the occurrence of ticks dispersed by birds migrating along the Polish Baltic coast during spring and autumn migration. Field research was conducted at the bird ringing station in Wicie, located on the middle of the Polish Baltic coast, in 2011 and 2012 during spring and autumn migration. A total of 2657 birds from 45 species was examined. The most common species inspected were European robin (Erithacus rubecula) (63.3%), song thrush (Turdus philomelos) (5.13%), and goldcrest (Regulus regulus) (4.5%). Overall, 3129 ticks belonging to six species were collected: Ixodes ricinus (1650 larvae, 1390 nymphs and 1 male), Ixodes frontalis (20 larvae, 20 nymphs), Ixodes arboricola (35 larvae), Dermacentor reticulatus (1 larva), and Haemaphysalis punctata (1 nymph). Ten larvae and one nymph could only be identified to the genus level Ixodes. Ticks were located on various parts of the head: on the corner of the beak (75.0%), near the eyes (14.6%), on the chin (4.4%), near the ears (4.4%), on the neck (1.1%), and in the beak (0.5%). The overall tick prevalence was 40.5%. The highest prevalence was for bird species feeding on the ground, covering a medium distance to wintering grounds and migrating at night. Statistically significant differences between the number of ticks and the sex of the host species were detected in blackbirds: males carried more parasites than females, both, during spring and autumn migration. The fact that I. ricinus and other ticks parasitize birds migrating through Poland extends the possibility of the spread of tick-borne diseases.

Relatedness of wildlife and livestock avian isolates of the nosocomial pathogen Acinetobacter baumannii to lineages spread in hospitals worldwide.

The natural habitats and potential reservoirs of the nosocomial pathogen Acinetobacter baumannii are poorly defined. Here, we put forth and tested the hypothesis of avian reservoirs of A. baumannii. We screened tracheal and rectal swab samples from livestock (chicken, geese) and wild birds (white stork nestlings) and isolated A. baumannii from 3% of sampled chicken (n = 220), 8% of geese (n = 40) and 25% of white stork nestlings (n = 661). Virulence of selected avian A. baumannii isolates was comparable to that of clinical isolates in the Galleria mellonella infection model. Whole genome sequencing revealed the close relationship of an antibiotic-susceptible chicken isolate from Germany with a multidrug-resistant human clinical isolate from China and additional linkages between livestock isolates and human clinical isolates related to international clonal lineages. Moreover, we identified stork isolates related to human clinical isolates from the United States. Multilocus sequence typing disclosed further kinship between avian and human isolates. Avian isolates do not form a distinct clade within the phylogeny of A. baumannii, instead they diverge into different lineages. Further, we provide evidence that A. baumannii is constantly present in the habitats occupied by storks. Collectively, our study suggests A. baumannii could be a zoonotic organism that may disseminate into livestock.

Dense city centers support less evolutionary unique bird communities than sparser urban areas.

Urbanization alters avian communities, generally lowering the number of species and contemporaneously increasing their functional relatedness, leading to biotic homogenization. Urbanization can also negatively affect the phylogenetic diversity of species assemblages, potentially decreasing their evolutionary distinctiveness. We compare species assemblages in a gradient of building density in seventeen European cities to test whether the evolutionary distinctiveness of communities is shaped by the degree of urbanization. We found a significant decline in the evolutionary uniqueness of avian communities in highly dense urban areas, compared to low and medium-dense areas. Overall, communities from dense city centers supported one million years of evolutionary history less than communities from low-dense urban areas. Such evolutionary homogenization was due to a filtering process of the most evolutionarily unique birds. Metrics related to evolutionary uniqueness have to play a role when assessing the effects of urbanization and can be used to identify local conservation priorities.

Spatial Overlap and Habitat Selection of Corvid Species in European Cities.

Understanding habitat and spatial overlap in sympatric species of urban areas would aid in predicting species and community modifications in response to global change. Habitat overlap has been widely investigated for specialist species but neglected for generalists living in urban settings. Many corvid species are generalists and are adapted to urban areas. This work aimed to determine the urban habitat requirements and spatial overlap of five corvid species in sixteen European cities during the breeding season. All five studied corvid species had high overlap in their habitat selection while still having particular tendencies. We found three species, the Carrion/Hooded Crow, Rook, and Eurasian Magpie, selected open habitats. The Western Jackdaw avoided areas with bare soil cover, and the Eurasian Jay chose more forested areas. The species with similar habitat selection also had congruent spatial distributions. Our results indicate that although the corvids had some tendencies regarding habitat selection, as generalists, they still tolerated a wide range of urban habitats, which resulted in high overlap in their habitat niches and spatial distributions.

Selection of Urbanized Areas by Magpie Pica pica in a Medium Size City in Poland.

The Magpie Pica pica occurs all over open agricultural areas in Poland, especially near human settlements (particularly in western Poland). The aim of this study was to estimate the size of the local Magpie population and characterize, in detail, nest site selection in a medium size city Górzów Wlkp. in the XXI century. For this study, the whole city was divided into a total of 114 squares of 1 × 1 km. Data were collected in spring 2014. A total of 474 Magpie pairs were recorded. The average density was 5.5 pairs/km2 (min = 0, max = 22 nests/square), in the non-urbanized habitat type-3.7 p/km2, and in the urbanized habitat type-13.5 p/km2. Magpie nests were found most often on Spruces Picea sp. and Poplars Populus sp. The mean height of the nest site was 11.5 m, while the mean height of trees used for nesting was 13.4 m. The type of tree arrangement most frequently used for nesting was tree rows (26.3%), followed by single trees (24.6%) and clusters of 4-10 trees (20.1%). The results for the Magpie's environmental preferences do not differ from the general patterns described earlier. The study shows that magpies can adapt to changing urbanization factors, and changes in the choice of conifers help the species to adapt to highly anthropogenic habitats.

Effects of urbanization on taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic avian diversity in Europe.

Europe is an urbanized continent characterized by a long history of human-wildlife interactions. This study aimed to assess the effects of specific elements of urbanization and urban pollution on complementary avian diversity metrics, to provide new insights on the conservation of urban birds. Our study recorded 133 bird species at 1624 point counts uniformly distributed in seventeen different European cities. Our results thus covered a large spatial scale, confirming both effects of geographical and local attributes of the cities on avian diversity. However, we found contrasting effects for the different diversity components analyzed. Overall, taxonomic diversity (bird species richness), phylogenetic diversity and relatedness were significantly and negatively associated with latitude, while functional dispersion of communities showed no association whatsoever. At the local level (within the city), we found that urban greenery (grass, bush, and trees) is positively correlated with the number of breeding bird species, while the building cover showed a detrimental effect. Functional dispersion was the less affected diversity metric, while grass and trees and water (rivers or urban streams) positively affected the phylogenetic diversity of avian communities. Finally, the phylogenetic relatedness of species increased with all the main indicators of urbanization (building surface, floors, pedestrian's density and level of light pollution) and was only mitigated by the presence of bushes. We argue that maintaining adequate levels of avian diversity within the urban settlements can help to increase the potential resilience of urban ecosystems exposed to the stress provoked by rapid and continuous changes. We listed some characteristics of the cities providing positive and negative effects on each facet of urban avian diversity.

Sex ratio of White Stork Ciconia ciconia in different environments of Poland.

The aim of this study was to analyze the variation in sex ratio of White Stork Ciconia ciconia chicks from differentiated Poland environments. We took under a consideration the impact of Cd and Pb for establish differences among sex ratio in chicks. We also study multiplex PCR employment for establish gender considerations. We collected blood samples via venipuncture of brachial vein of chicks during 2006-2008 breeding seasons at the Odra meadows (SW-Poland; control), which were compared with those from suburbs (SW-Poland), and from copper smelter (S-Poland; polluted) and from swamps near Baltic Sea. We found differences among sex ratio in White Stork chicks from types of environment. Male participation in sex structure is importantly higher in each type of environment excluded suburban areas. Differences in White Stork sex ratio according to the degree of environmental degradation expressed by Cd and Pb and sex-environment-metal interactions testify about the impact of these metals upon sex ratios in storks. Simultaneously, as a result of multiplex PCR, 18S ribosome gene, which served as internal control of PCR, was amplified in male and female storks. It means that it is possible to use primers designed for chicken in order to replicate this fragment of genome in White Stork. Moreover, the use of Oriental White Stork Ciconia boyciana W- chromosome specific primers makes it possible to determine the sex of C. ciconia chicks. Many factors make sex ratio of White Stork changes in subsequent breeding seasons, which depend significantly on specific environmental parameters that shape individual detailed defense mechanisms.