Quantitative behavioral genetic and molecular genetic foundations of the approach and avoidance strategies.

Two studies examined genetic and environmental influences on traits proposed by the revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (rRST) of personality. Both quantitative and molecular behavioral genetic methods were applied considering the effects of COMT, DRD2, HTR1A and TPH2 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Study one included 274 monozygotic and 154 dizygotic twins for the quantitative behavioral study; and in study two there were 431 twins for the molecular genetic study. The Reinforcement Sensitivity Questionnaire was used to assess basic personality traits defined by the rRST. Univariate biometric modeling suggested that genetic influences accounted for 34-44% of variance of Behavioral Approach System (BAS), Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) and Fight-Fligh-Freeze System. Molecular genetic analyses proposed the significant main effect of COMT SNP on the BAS and TPH2 SNP on the BIS, and pointed out epistatic effects of COMT x DRD2 on BAS and HTR1A x TPH2 on Fight. Results demonstrated substantial heritability for all rRST constructs, as well as for differences in the molecular genetic basis of both approach-related and avoidance-related dimensions.

Development and Validation of a Short Version of the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality Questionnaire (RST-PQ-S).

We conducted three studies (total n = 998) aimed at developing and validating a shortened version of the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality Questionnaire (i.e., the RST-PQ-S). In Study 1 (n = 341), twenty-two items were selected from the original RST-PQ, based on both theoretical and empirical criteria. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) on this short-form supported the six-factor structure comprising: FFFS, BIS, and four BAS components (Reward Interest, Goal Drive-Persistence, Reward Reactivity, and Impulsivity). The six scale scores showed adequate levels of internal consistency. Construct validity was supported by correlations with established personality measures. In Study 2 (n = 340), CFA results were cross-validated in an independent sample and construct validity was supported by correlations with BIS/BAS scales. In Study 3 (n = 317) test-retest correlations showed acceptable-to-good levels of temporal stability over a four-week interval. Results revealed a substantial overlap with original, full-length RST-PQ, providing evidence for the comparability of the two versions. Latent State-Trait analyses showed that the items of the RST-PQ-S mostly capture interindividual differences that are stable across situations. Taken together, findings indicate that the RST-PQ-S provides an efficient, valid and reliable alterative to the longer RST-PQ.

BIS and BAS Sensitivities at Different Levels of Personality Description: A Latent-Variable Approach with Self- and Informant-Ratings.

We examine the structural overlap of the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) and the Behavioral Approach System (BAS) with Stability and Plasticity, the two higher-order factors encompassing the Big Five. Carver and White's BIS/BAS and the Big Five Inventory were administered to a sample of 330 adults, serving both as targets and informants. Self- and other-ratings were modeled by using the Correlated Trait-Correlated Method model. BIS and BAS correlated highly with metatraits, after method variance and measurement error were partialled out: BIS was positively related to Stability, while BAS was positively related to Plasticity and negatively related to Stability. After the higher-order factors were controlled, the BIS was highly and positively related to Emotional stability, whereas the BAS had a small but significant relationship with Extraversion. Findings are discussed with regard to the most appropriate level of generality/specificity at which the personality correlates of BIS and BAS can be investigated.

Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality Questionnaire: Factor Structure Based on CFA and ESEM, and Associations with ADHD.

Revised reinforcement sensitivity theory (r-RST) of personality is a major neuropsychological theory of motivation, emotion and personality. This paper presents the results of a study examining: (1) the factor structure of the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality Questionnaire (RST-PQ) using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM); and (2) the relationships of the r-RST constructs in the RST-PQ with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptom groups of inattention (IA) and hyperactivity/impulsivity (HI). A total of 572 (Sample 1) and 309 (Sample 2) adults completed the RST-PQ. Participants in Sample 2 also completed a questionnaire measuring ADHD symptoms. Results revealed more support for the ESEM model with six factors than the CFA model. For both the ESEM and CFA models, both IA and HI symptom groups were associated positively with the RST-PQ constructs of behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and behavioral approach system (BAS) Impulsivity, with IA also associated negatively with the BAS-Goal-Drive Persistence. The theoretical implications of these findings for understanding the factor structure of the RST-PQ, and for ADHD (IA and HI) in terms of r-RST, are discussed.

Behavioural inhibition and valuation of gain/loss are neurally distinct from approach/withdrawal.

Gain or omission/termination of loss produces approach; while loss or omission/termination of gain produces withdrawal. Control of approach/withdrawal motivation is distinct from valuation of gain/loss and does not entail learning - making "reward" and "punishment" ambiguous. Approach-withdrawal goal conflict engages a neurally distinct Behavioural Inhibition System, which controls "anxiety" (conflict/passive avoidance) but not "fear" (withdrawal/active avoidance).

Fractionating negative and positive affectivity in handedness: Insights from the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of personality.

The Annett Hand Preference Questionnaire (AHPQ), as modified by Briggs and Nebes [(1975). Patterns of hand preference in a student population. Cortex, 11(3), 230-238. doi: 10.1016/s0010-9452(75)80005-0] , was administered to a sample of 177 participants alongside the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality Questionnaire [RST-PQ; Corr, P. J., & Cooper, A. (2016). The Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality Questionnaire (RST-PQ): Development and validation. Psychological Assessment. doi: 10.1037/pas000 ], which measures two factors of defensive negative emotion, motivation and affectivity-the Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS) and the Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS)-and one positive-approach dimension related to reward sensitivity, persistence and reactivity-the Behavioural Approach System. We sought to clarify the nature of negative, and positive, affectivity in relation to handedness. ANOVAs and multiple regression analyses converged on the following conclusions: left-handers were higher on the BIS, not the FFFS, than right-handers; in right-handers only, strength of hand preference was positively correlated with the FFFS, not the BIS. The original assessment method proposed by Annett was also used to assess handedness, but associations with RST-PQ factors were not found. These findings help us to clarify existing issues in the literature and raise new ones for future research.

Mechanisms of comorbidity, continuity, and discontinuity in anxiety-related disorders.

We discuss comorbidity, continuity, and discontinuity of anxiety-related disorders from the perspective of a two-dimensional neuropsychology of fear (threat avoidance) and anxiety (threat approach). Pharmacological dissection of the "neurotic" disorders justifies both a categorical division between fear and anxiety and a subdivision of each mapped to a hierarchy of neural modules that process different immediacies of threat. It is critical that each module can generate normal responses, symptoms of another syndrome, or syndromal responses. We discuss the resultant possibilities for comorbid dysfunction of these modules both with each other and with some disorders not usually classified as anxiety related. The simplest case is symptomatic fear/anxiety comorbidity, where dysfunction in one module results in excess activity in a second, otherwise normal, module to generate symptoms and apparent comorbidity. More complex is syndromal fear/anxiety comorbidity, where more than one module is concurrently dysfunctional. Yet more complex are syndromal comorbidities of anxiety that go beyond the two dimensional fear/anxiety systems: depression, substance use disorder, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Our account of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder-anxiety comorbidity entails discussion of the neuropsychology of externalizing disorders to account for the lack of anxiety comorbidity in some of these. Finally, we link the neuropsychology of disorder to personality variation, and to the development of a biomarker of variation in the anxiety system among individuals that, if extreme, may provide a means of unambiguously identifying the first of a range of anxiety syndromes.

Handedness and behavioural inhibition system/behavioural activation system (BIS/BAS) scores: A replication and extension of Wright, Hardie, and Wilson (2009).

The Annett Hand Preference Questionnaire (AHPQ) as modified by Briggs and Nebes was administered along with Carver and White's behavioural inhibition system (BIS) and behavioural activation system (BAS) scale and a shortened form of the Big Five personality questionnaire to 92 university students. After eliminating the data from five respondents who reported having changed handedness and one outlier, there was a significant sex difference in mean BIS scores, with females (n = 43) scoring higher than males (n = 43). Replicating the results of Wright, Hardie and Wilson, non-right-handers (n = 36) had significantly higher mean BIS score than right-handers (n = 50). Controlling for sex of participant, neuroticism and BAS sub-scale scores in hierarchical regression analyses left this BIS effect substantially unaffected. There was no handedness or sex difference on any of the three BAS sub-scales. Further analyses revealed no association between strength, as distinct from direction, of handedness and BIS (or BAS) scores. The findings are discussed with reference to recent developments in reinforcement sensitivity theory on which BIS/BAS variables are based.

Pause for thought: response perseveration and personality in gambling.

In a sample of normal volunteers, response perseveration (RP) on a computerised gambling task, the card perseveration task, was examined under two conditions: No pause (Standard task) and a 5-s pause (Pause task) following feedback from previous bet. Behavioural outcomes comprised number of cards played (and cash won/lost) and latency of response. Individual differences in these outcomes were conceptualised in terms of the reinforcement sensitivity theory of personality. Results showed that, on the Standard task only, sub-scales of the Carver and White (J Pers Social Psychol 67:319-333, 1994) Behavioural Approach System scale positively correlated with number of cards played and amount of money lost (indicative of impaired RP), but these associations were abolished with the imposition of a 5-s pause between feedback and the opportunity to make the next bet-this pause also had an overall main effect of improving RP and reducing losses. As related research shows that such a pause normalises the RP deficit seen in pathological gamblers, these findings hold potentially valuable implications for informing practice in the prevention and treatment of pathological gambling, and point to the role played by individual differences in approach motivation.

Cold and hot cognition: quantum probability theory and realistic psychological modeling.

Typically, human decision making is emotionally "hot" and does not conform to "cold" classical probability (CP) theory. As quantum probability (QP) theory emphasises order, context, superimposition states, and nonlinear dynamic effects, one of its major strengths may be its power to unify formal modeling and realistic psychological theory (e.g., information uncertainty, anxiety, and indecision, as seen in the Prisoner's Dilemma).

ADHD and the avoidance of mental effort: the role of response inhibition and avoidance motivation.

OBJECTIVE: The tendency of people with ADHD to avoid tasks that require mental effort impacts their academic achievement. Findings in the literature suggest that children with ADHD find cognitive tasks more effortful and uncomfortable than their typically developing peers. However, neuropsychological processes contributing to this remain unclear. The present study investigated whether the relationship between prepotent motor response inhibition and avoiding mental effort is mediated by the ability to resist avoidance motivation and whether this proposed mediation mechanism is contingent on ADHD diagnosis. METHOD: 40 children with ADHD and 40 gender and age-matched typically developing peers participated in the study. They completed the Cognitive Effort Avoidance Measure, the Go/No-go Task, and the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory-Personality Questionnaire-Children. Mediation and moderated mediation analyses were employed to test the hypotheses. RESULTS: Children with ADHD scored lower in response inhibition and resisting avoidance motivation. Poorer scores in these variables were associated with a higher avoidance rate. Moreover, the ability to resist avoidance motivation completely mediated the relationship between response inhibition and avoidance rate only among children with ADHD. CONCLUSION: Findings imply that poorer response inhibition led to an increase in avoidance motivation among children with ADHD, which becomes challenging to regulate effectively due to an impairment in the ability to resist avoidance motivation. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed.

Comparing two measures of schizotypy and their relationship with psychological distress in British university students.

AIMS: Schizotypy reflects the vulnerability to schizophrenia in the general population. Different questionnaires have been developed to measure aspects of schizotypy. Higher schizotypy scores have also been linked with depression, anxiety, and stress sensitivity. Here we examine the associations of schizotypy with symptoms of depression and anxiety in a sample of university students, using two different measures (N = 271). METHODS: A series of confirmatory factor analyses was used to examine two distinct and frequently employed measures of schizotypy: the Community Assessment of Psychic Experiences (CAPE), and the Schizotypy Personality Questionnaire (SPQ). We assessed their relationship with each other and their predictive validity for anxiety, depression, and stress sensitivity. RESULTS: Our results indicated the brief 7-factor SPQ (SPQ-BR) factor solution for the SPQ and the 15-item and 3 factor solution for the CAPE (i.e., CAPE-P15) as best fitting models. Particularly the CAPE dimension of persecutory ideation was a strong predictor of anxiety, depression, and stress sensitivity, whereas the SPQ dimensions of no close friends and social anxiety predicted psychological distress and stress in our student sample. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings extend earlier work in general and patient samples and point to the importance of understanding the contribution of particularly positive schizotypy symptoms and different interpersonal aspects to psychological distress.

Prejudice and personality: a role for positive-approach processes?

Individuals differ in their support for social change. We argue that examinations of inequality and change would benefit from consideration of underlying personality processes. New data suggest that Right-Wing Authoritarianism and Social Dominance Orientation, indicators of support for inequality, may be motivated by biologically driven personality processes, particularly those related to positive-approach motivation.

Construct validity of questionnaires for the original and revised reinforcement sensitivity theory.

This study highlights psychometric properties and evidence of construct validity on parcel-level for questionnaires on the original and revised reinforcement sensitivity theory. Our data (N = 1,076) suggest good to very good psychometric properties and moderate to excellent internal consistencies. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) models suggest a very good model fit for the first-order, four factor models of the Carver-White BIS/BAS scales, Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory - Personality Questionnaire (RST-PQ), the two-factor model of revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory-Questionnaire (rRST-Q) and for the bifactor model of the Conflict Monitoring Questionnaire (CMQ-44). The CMQ-44 extends the psychometric measurement of previous trait-(r)BIS and trait-BAS scales. Factor scores of CMQ-44 cognitive demand correlate positively with factor scores of Carver-White BIS and all Carver-White BAS subfactors except RST-PQ-Impulsivity suggesting that CMQ-44 cognitive demand addresses Carver-White trait-BIS specifically and more generally the trait-BAS core. CMQ-44 anticipation of negative consequences and response adaptation correlate negatively with trait-BAS, whereas the second-order factor performance monitoring extends the rRST trait-space and correlates positively with trait-BAS.

Effects of Lorazepam and citalopram on human defensive reactions: ethopharmacological differentiation of fear and anxiety.

Drugs that are clinically effective against generalized anxiety disorder preferentially alter rodent risk assessment behavior, whereas drugs that are clinically effective against panic disorder preferentially alter rodent flight behavior. The theoretical principle of "defensive direction" explains the pattern of associations between emotion and defensive behavior in terms of the differing functional demands arising from cautious approach to threat (anxiety) versus departure from threat (fear), offering the prospect that clinically important emotions may be explained using a single rubric of defense. We used a within-subjects, placebo-controlled, design to test this theory, measuring the effects of citalopram and lorazepam on the defensive behavior of 30 healthy adult male humans. We indexed human defensive behavior with a translation of an active avoidance task used to measure rodent defense and found that lorazepam significantly reduced the intensity of defensive behavior during approach to threat (hypothetically anxiety-related) but not departure from threat (hypothetically fear-related). Contrary to prediction, citalopram did not affect either form of defensive reaction. Since lorazepam is a drug with well established anxiety reducing properties, these data support the hypothesis that anxiety is an emotion elicited by threat stimuli that require approach. These data also contribute to the validation of a novel human analog of an established experimental model of rodent fear and anxiety.

Personality and defensive reactions: fear, trait anxiety, and threat magnification.

The revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (rRST) of personality (Gray & McNaughton, 2000) maintains that trait individual differences in the operation of defensive systems relate to facets of human personality, most notably anxiety and fear. We investigated this theory in 2 separate studies (total N=270) using a threat scenario research strategy (Blanchard, Hynd, Minke, Minemoto, & Blanchard, 2001). Consistent with rRST, results showed that individuals with high fear questionnaire scores tended to select defensive responses entailing orientation away from threat (e.g., run away) and that fear-prone individuals also tended to perceive threats as magnified. The extent of this threat magnification mediated the positive association observed between fear and orientation away from threat. Overall, results suggest that interindividual variance in defensive reactions is associated with a variety of existing personality constructs but that further research is required to determine the precise relationship between personality and defensive reactions.

Behavioral Immune System Responses to Coronavirus: A Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory Explanation of Conformity, Warmth Toward Others and Attitudes Toward Lockdown.

Behavioral immune system (BIS) describes psychological mechanisms that detect cues to infectious pathogens in the immediate environment, trigger disease-relevant responses and facilitate behavioral avoidance/escape. BIS activation elicits a perceived vulnerability to disease (PVD) which can result in conformity with social norms. However, a response to superficial cues can result in aversive responses to people that pose no actual threat, leading to an aversion to unfamiliar others, and likelihood of prejudice. Pathogen-neutralizing behaviors, therefore, have implications for social interaction as well as illness behaviors and responses to health communications. In this study, we investigate how PVD influences conformity, attitudes to other people and to lockdown regulations through the lens of the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST). RST describes personality in terms of biologically-driven approach and avoidance motivations which support personal goals. Participants from the United Kingdom public (N = 605) completed an RST personality questionnaire and then read either (a) coronavirus morbidity-mortality statistics and current United Kingdom government lifestyle regulations, (b) just the regulations (as presented in most government publicity materials), or (c) no information at all. They all completed the Perceived Vulnerability to Disease scale to assess BIS-relevant Germ Aversion and Perceived Infectability, followed by questions measuring social conformity, warmth toward others and attitudes toward lockdown measures. Significantly lower PVD scores were observed in the no-information condition, with the other conditions showing no difference. In terms of RST, approach behaviors related to goal-drive persistence work alongside fear in explaining conformity to social norms. Reward related approach behaviors partially explained warmth toward others, indicating that social rewards gained through interaction continue to be strong drivers of behavior. We found no role for RST traits in attitudes toward lockdown. Overall, coronavirus-related behavior is not driven purely by fear, but also by social and/or protection goals regulated by approach motivation. This study presents new insights into public perceptions of coronavirus and government regulated lifestyle restrictions, helping to explain social behaviors in terms of biologically driven mechanisms. Such understanding is vital if we are to successfully motivate public behavior to constrain spread of the virus.

Coronavirus (COVID-19) in the United Kingdom: A personality-based perspective on concerns and intention to self-isolate.

Objectives Public behaviour change is necessary to contain the spread of coronavirus (COVID-19). Based on the reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST) framework, this study presents an examination of individual differences in some relevant psychological factors. Design Cross-sectional psychometric. Methods UK respondents (N = 202) completed a personality questionnaire (RST-PQ), measures of illness attitudes, concerns about the impact of coronavirus on health services and socio-economic infrastructures, personal safety, and likelihood of voluntary self-isolation. Results Respondents most concerned were older, had negative illness attitudes, and scored higher on reward reactivity (RR), indicating the motivation to take positive approach action despite prevailing worry/anxiety. Personal safety concerns were highest in those with negative illness attitudes and higher fight-flight-freeze system (FFFS, reflecting fear/avoidance) scores. Results suggest people are experiencing psychological conflict: between the urge to stay safe (FFFF-related) and the desire to maintain a normal, pleasurable (RR-related) life. Ways of ameliorating conflict may include maladaptive behaviours (panic buying), reflecting reward-related displacement activity. Intended self-isolation related to FFFS, but also low behavioural inhibition system (related to anxiety) scores. Older people reported themselves less likely to self-isolate. Conclusions Interventions need to consider individual differences in psychological factors in behaviour change, and we discuss relevant literature to inform policy makers and communicators. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject? Reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST) personality systems can influence perception of persuasive health messages. However, there is limited evidence for their direct effects on health concerns and behaviours, and none relating to specific infectious diseases. What does this study add? Reward reactivity (RR) is associated with concern about impact of coronavirus on the NHS and other social infrastructures, indicating the motivation to take positive-approach action despite worry/anxiety. Personal safety concerns are related to fight-flight-freeze system traits (FFFS, reflecting fear/avoidance). Intended self-isolation related to FFFS, but also low behavioural inhibition system (related to anxiety) scores. Older people reported themselves less likely to self-isolate. Results suggest psychological conflict: between the urge to stay safe (FFFF-related) and the desire to maintain a normal, pleasurable life (RR-related). Ways of ameliorating conflict may include maladaptive behaviours (panic buying), reflecting reward-related displacement activity.

What motivates academic dishonesty in students? A reinforcement sensitivity theory explanation.

BACKGROUND: Academic dishonesty (AD) is an increasing challenge for universities worldwide. The rise of the Internet has further increased opportunities for students to cheat. AIMS: In this study, we investigate the role of personality traits defined within Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) as potential determinants of AD. RST defines behaviour as resulting from approach (Reward Interest/reactivity, goal-drive, and Impulsivity) and avoidance (behavioural inhibition and Fight-Flight-Freeze) motivations. We further consider the role of deep, surface, or achieving study motivations in mediating/moderating the relationship between personality and AD. SAMPLE: A sample of UK undergraduates (N = 240). METHOD: All participants completed the RST Personality Questionnaire, a short-form version of the study process questionnaire and a measure of engagement in AD, its perceived prevalence, and seriousness. RESULTS: Results showed that RST traits account for additional variance in AD. Mediation analysis suggested that GDP predicted dishonesty indirectly via a surface study approach while the indirect effect via deep study processes suggested dishonesty was not likely. Likelihood of engagement in AD was positively associated with personality traits reflecting Impulsivity and Fight-Flight-Freeze behaviours. Surface study motivation moderated the Impulsivity effect and achieving motivation the FFFS effect such that cheating was even more likely when high levels of these processes were used. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that motivational personality traits defined within RST can explain variance in the likelihood of engaging in dishonest academic behaviours.

Threat-sensitivity in affective disorders: A case-control study.

BACKGROUND: Anxiety disorders are highly comorbid with major depression but differ in their symptom profiles and pharmacological responses. Threat-sensitivity may explain such differences, yet research on its relationship to specific disorders is lacking. METHODS: One-hundred patients (71 women) and 35 healthy controls (23 women) were recruited. Thirty-five had Panic Disorder (PD), 32 had Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) and 33 Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). Threat-sensitivity was measured via behaviour (Joystick Operated Runway Task; JORT) and self-report (Fear Survey Schedule; FSS). RESULTS: Behavioural sensitivity to simple threat was higher in females compared to males (p = .03). Self-reported sensitivity to simple threat (FSS Tissue Damage Fear) was higher in PD patients compared to other groups (p ≤ .007) and in GAD patients compared to controls (p = .02). Behavioural sensitivity to complex threat was higher in females than males (p = .03) and a group by sex interaction (p = .01) indicated that this difference was largest in PD patients. Self-reported sensitivity to complex threat (FSS Social Fear) was higher in all patients compared to controls (p ≤ .001). Females scored higher than males on FSS Tissue Damage Fear and FSS Social Fear). CONCLUSIONS: Our findings oppose the simple/complex threat dichotomy, instead suggesting elevated sensitivity to physical threat differentiates anxiety disorders from MDD, whereas elevated sensitivity to social threat is associated with both anxiety disorders and MDD.