Neurotrophin-3 is a novel angiogenic factor capable of therapeutic neovascularization in a mouse model of limb ischemia.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the novel hypothesis that neurotrophin-3 (NT-3), an established neurotrophic factor that participates in embryonic heart development, promotes blood vessel growth. METHODS AND RESULTS: We evaluated the proangiogenic capacity of recombinant NT-3 in vitro and of NT-3 gene transfer in vivo (rat mesenteric angiogenesis assay and mouse normoperfused adductor muscle). Then, we studied whether either transgenic or endogenous NT-3 mediates postischemic neovascularization in a mouse model of limb ischemia. In vitro, NT-3 stimulated endothelial cell survival, proliferation, migration, and network formation on the basement membrane matrix Matrigel. In the mesenteric assay, NT-3 increased the number and size of functional vessels, including vessels covered with mural cells. Consistently, NT-3 overexpression increased muscular capillary and arteriolar densities in either the absence or the presence of ischemia and improved postischemic blood flow recovery in mouse hind limbs. NT-3-induced microvascular responses were accompanied by tropomyosin receptor kinase C (an NT-3 high-affinity receptor) phosphorylation and involved the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-Akt kinase-endothelial nitric oxide synthase pathway. Finally, endogenous NT-3 was shown to be essential in native postischemic neovascularization, as demonstrated by using a soluble tropomyosin receptor kinase C receptor domain that neutralizes NT-3. CONCLUSIONS: Our results provide the first insight into the proangiogenic capacity of NT-3 and propose NT-3 as a novel potential agent for the treatment of ischemic disease.

Biological activity of nerve growth factor precursor is dependent upon relative levels of its receptors.

Nerve growth factor (NGF) is produced as a precursor called pro-nerve growth factor (proNGF), which is secreted by many tissues and is the predominant form of NGF in the central nervous system. In Alzheimer disease brain, cholinergic neurons degenerate and can no longer transport NGF as efficiently, leading to an increase in untransported NGF in the target tissue. The protein that accumulates in the target tissue is proNGF, not the mature form. The role of this precursor is controversial, and both neurotrophic and apoptotic activities have been reported for recombinant proNGFs. Differences in the protein structures, protein expression systems, methods used for protein purification, and methods used for bioassay may affect the activity of these proteins. Here, we show that proNGF is neurotrophic regardless of mutations or tags, and no matter how it is purified or in which system it is expressed. However, although proNGF is neurotrophic under our assay conditions for primary sympathetic neurons and for pheochromocytoma (PC12) cells, it is apoptotic for unprimed PC12 cells when they are deprived of serum. The ratio of tropomyosin-related kinase A to p75 neurotrophin receptor is low in unprimed PC12 cells compared with primed PC12 cells and sympathetic neurons, altering the balance of proNGF-induced signaling to favor apoptosis. We conclude that the relative level of proNGF receptors determines whether this precursor exhibits neurotrophic or apoptotic activity.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor drives the changes in excitatory synaptic transmission in the rat superficial dorsal horn that follow sciatic nerve injury.

Peripheral nerve injury can promote neuropathic pain. The basis of the 'central sensitization' that underlies this often intractable condition was investigated using 14-20-day chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve of 20-day-old rats followed by electrophysiological analysis of acutely isolated spinal cord slices. In addition, defined-medium organotypic spinal cord slice cultures were exposed for 5-6 days to brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF, 200 ng ml(-1)) or to medium conditioned with activated microglia (aMCM). Since microglial activation is an early consequence of CCI, the latter manipulation allowed us to model the effect of peripheral nerve injury on the dorsal horn in vitro. Using whole-cell recording from superficial dorsal horn neurons, we found that both BDNF and CCI increased excitatory synaptic drive to putative excitatory 'radial delay' neurons and decreased synaptic excitation of inhibitory 'tonic islet/central' neurons. BDNF also attenuated synaptic excitation of putative GABAergic neurons identified by glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) immunoreactivity. Intrinsic neuronal properties (rheobase, input resistance and action potential discharge rates) were unaffected. Exposure of organotypic cultures to either BDNF or aMCM increased overall excitability of the dorsal horn, as seen by increased cytoplasmic Ca(2+) responses to 35 mm K(+) as monitored by confocal Fluo-4AM imaging. The effect of aMCM was attenuated by the recombinant BDNF binding protein TrkBd5 and the effect of BDNF persisted when GABAergic inhibition was blocked with SR95531. These findings suggest that CCI enhances excitatory synaptic drive to excitatory neurons but decreases that to inhibitory neurons. Both effects are mediated by nerve injury-induced release of BDNF from microglia.

Human ProNGF: biological effects and binding profiles at TrkA, P75NTR and sortilin.

Nerve growth factor (NGF) promotes cell survival via binding to the tyrosine kinase receptor A (TrkA). Its precursor, proNGF, binds to p75(NTR) and sortilin receptors to initiate apoptosis. Current disagreement exists over whether proNGF acts neurotrophically following binding to TrkA. As in Alzheimer's disease the levels of proNGF increase and TrkA decrease, it is important to clarify the properties of proNGF. Here, wild-type and cleavage-resistant mutated forms (M) of proNGF were engineered and their binding characteristics determined. M-proNGF and NGF bound to p75(NTR) with similar affinities, whilst M-proNGF had a lower affinity than NGF for TrkA. M-proNGF behaved neurotrophically, albeit less effectively than NGF. M-proNGF addition resulted in phosphorylation of TrkA and ERK1/2, and in PC12 cells elicited neurite outgrowth and supported cell survival. Conversely, M-proNGF addition to cultured cortical neurons initiated caspase 3 cleavage. Importantly, these biological effects were shown to be mediated by unprocessed M-proNGF. Surprisingly, binding of the pro region alone to TrkA, at a site other than that of NGF, caused TrkA and ERK1/2 phosphorylation. Our data show that M-proNGF stimulates TrkA to a lesser degree than NGF, suggesting that in Alzheimer brain the increased proNGF : NGF and p75(NTR) : TrkA ratios may permit apoptotic effects to predominate over neurotrophic effects.

Familial Alzheimer's disease presenilin 1 mutation M146V increases gamma secretase cutting of p75NTR in vitro.

The cholinergic neurons of the basal forebrain are amongst the first to degenerate in Alzheimer's disease. These neurons are unique in the brain, expressing the tyrosine kinase receptor TrkA, together with the common neurotrophin receptor p75NTR; both of which bind nerve growth factor. Activation of the TrkA receptor is important in the maintenance of cell viability, whereas the p75NTR receptor has been implicated in apoptosis. Mutations in the gene for presenilin 1, a multi-transmembrane aspartyl protease, are known to cause familial Alzheimer's disease. This is thought to be due to their effect on gamma-secretase-dependent processing of amyloid precursor protein and subsequent formation of amyloid. Since p75NTR was recently shown to undergo gamma-secretase regulated intramembrane proteolysis, this study examines the effect of familial Alzheimer mutations on processing of p75NTR. PC12 cells were stably transfected with familial mutations M146V, A246E and deltaE9 and wild-type presenilin 1 and were examined here for gamma-secretase-dependent proteolysis of p75NTR. Overexpression of wild-type presenilin 1 did not increase gamma-secretase-mediated cleavage of p75NTR. However, by contrast, the presence of the M146V mutation was shown to significantly increase cleavage of p75NTR compared with the other mutations. Survival of cholinergic neurons will depend on the balance between the receptors TrkA and p75NTR, and their respective signalling pathways. Thus alterations in p75NTR proteolysis may influence this equilibrium. The novel finding that a mutation may increase processing of p75NTR may have implications for the pathogenic outcome in Alzheimer's disease.

Premorbid effects of APOE on synaptic proteins in human temporal neocortex.

APOE affects the risk of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and course of several other neurologic diseases. Experimental studies suggest that APOE influences synaptogenesis. We measured the concentration of two presynaptic proteins, synaptophysin and syntaxin 1, and also postsynaptic density-95 (PSD95), in superior temporal cortex from 42 AD and 160 normal brains, and determined the APOE genotypes. The concentration of both presynaptic proteins was approximately two-thirds lower in AD than normal brains and that of PSD95 one-third lower. No effect of APOE on synaptic proteins was found in advanced AD. However, in normal brain, epsilon4 was associated with lower concentrations of all three synaptic proteins and epsilon2 with significantly elevated PSD95 (p=0.03). A combined measure of synaptic proteins showed a significant linear decrease from epsilon2 through epsilon3 to varepsilon4 (p=0.01). APOE influences the concentration of synaptic proteins in normal superior temporal cortex and may thereby affect the response to injury, and the risk and outcome of a range of neurologic diseases.

Design and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) structure determination of the second extracellular immunoglobulin tyrosine kinase A (TrkAIg2) domain construct for binding site elucidation in drug discovery.

The tyrosine kinase A (TrkA) receptor is a validated therapeutic intervention point for a wide range of conditions. TrkA activation by nerve growth factor (NGF) binding the second extracellular immunoglobulin (TrkAIg2) domain triggers intracellular signaling cascades. In the periphery, this promotes the pain phenotype and, in the brain, cell survival or differentiation. Reproducible structural information and detailed validation of protein-ligand interactions aid drug discovery. However, the isolated TrkAIg2 domain crystallizes as a ß-strand-swapped dimer in the absence of NGF, occluding the binding surface. Here we report the design and structural validation by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the first stable, biologically active construct of the TrkAIg2 domain for binding site confirmation. Our structure closely mimics the wild-type fold of TrkAIg2 in complex with NGF ( 1WWW .pdb), and the (1)H-(15)N correlation spectra confirm that both NGF and a competing small molecule interact at the known binding interface in solution.

Measurement of pre- and post-synaptic proteins in cerebral cortex: effects of post-mortem delay.

Assessments of synaptic density in human brain are often based on measurements of synaptic proteins. Little information is available on their post-mortem stability. We have investigated this by ELISAs of the pre-synaptic proteins syntaxin and synaptophysin, and the post-synaptic protein PSD-95, in rat and human cortex. The rat brains were cooled in situ from 37 to 20 or 4 degrees C over 3 h, and then kept at 20 or 4 degrees C for a further 24-72 h, to simulate post-mortem storage at room temperature or in a mortuary refrigerator. Synaptophysin and PSD-95 levels in rat cerebral cortex were not significantly decreased after 72 h of incubation at 20 degrees C. Syntaxin was stable for 24 h but decreased by 39-44% at 48-72 h. Storage at 4 degrees C resulted in a similar reduction of syntaxin levels over 72 h. In human brain tissue from 160 people aged 24-102 years, post-mortem delay had little effect on synaptic protein levels in superior temporal cortex, but was associated with a decline in PSD-95 and syntaxin in mid-frontal cortex after 24 h. The more robust stability of synaptophysin may be related to its multi-transmembrane structure.

The neurotrophins and their role in Alzheimer's disease.

Besides being essential for correct development of the vertebrate nervous system the neurotrophins also play a vital role in adult neuron survival, maintenance and regeneration. In addition they are implicated in the pathogenesis of certain neurodegenerative diseases, and may even provide a therapeutic solution for some. In particular there have been a number of studies on the involvement of nerve growth factor (NGF) and brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the development of Alzheimer's disease. This disease is of growing concern as longevity increases worldwide, with little treatment available at the moment to alleviate the condition. Memory loss is one of the earliest symptoms associated with Alzheimer's disease. The brain regions first affected by pathology include the hippocampus, and also the entorhinal cortex and basal cholinergic nuclei which project to the hippocampus; importantly, all these areas are required for memory formation. Both NGF and BDNF are affected early in the disease and this is thought to initiate a cascade of events which exacerbates pathology and leads to the symptoms of dementia. This review briefly describes the pathology, symptoms and molecular processes associated with Alzheimer's disease; it discusses the involvement of the neurotrophins, particularly NGF and BDNF, and their receptors, with changes in BDNF considered particularly in the light of its importance in synaptic plasticity. In addition, the possibilities of neurotrophin-based therapeutics are evaluated.

Treatment of murine osteoarthritis with TrkAd5 reveals a pivotal role for nerve growth factor in non-inflammatory joint pain.

The origin of pain in osteoarthritis is poorly understood, but it is generally thought to arise from inflammation within the innervated structures of the joint, such as the synovium, capsule and bone. We investigated the role of nerve growth factor (NGF) in pain development in murine OA, and the analgesic efficacy of the soluble NGF receptor, TrkAD5. OA was induced in mice by destabilisation of the medial meniscus and pain was assessed by measuring hind-limb weight distribution. RNA was extracted from joints, and NGF and TNF expressions were quantified. The effect of tumour necrosis factor (TNF) and neutrophil blockade on NGF expression and pain were also assessed. NGF was induced in the joints during both post-operative (day 3) and OA (16weeks) pain, but not in the non-painful stage of disease (8weeks post-surgery). TrkAd5 was highly effective at suppressing pain in both phases. Induction of NGF in the post-operative phase of pain was TNF-dependent as anti-TNF reduced NGF expression in the joint and abrogated pain. However, TNF was not regulated in the late OA joints, and pain was not affected by anti-TNF therapy. Fucoidan, by suppressing cellular infiltration into the joint, was able to suppress post-operative, but not late OA pain. These results indicate that NGF is an important mediator of OA pain and that TrkAd5 represents a potent novel analgesic in this condition. They also suggest that, unlike post-operative pain, induction of pain in OA may not necessarily be driven by classical inflammatory processes.

Targeting nerve growth factor in pain: what is the therapeutic potential?

Chronic pain presents a huge economic and social burden, with existing treatments largely unable to satisfy medical needs. Recently, studies have shown that nerve growth factor (NGF) is a major mediator of inflammatory and neuropathic pain, providing a new therapeutic target. Although originally discovered as a trophic factor for sympathetic and sensory neurons during development, it now appears that in adults, levels of NGF are elevated in many acute and chronic pain conditions. Furthermore, preclinical animal models of inflammatory and neuropathic pain also show increased NGF levels, while the sequestration of NGF alleviates the associated hyperalgesia. The molecular mechanisms involved are being elucidated. This review briefly examines pain signaling pathways and describes currently available analgesics. It then investigates the approaches taken in targeting NGF-mediated pain. Current options being explored include the development of humanized monoclonal antibodies to NGF or its tyrosine kinase receptor TrkA (also known as neurotrophic tyrosine kinase receptor, type 1 [NTRK1]), and the sequestration of NGF using TrkA domain 5 (TrkAd5), a soluble receptor protein that binds NGF with picomolar affinity. Administration of either antibodies or TrkAd5 has been shown to be effective in a number of preclinical models of pain, including cystitis, osteoarthritis, UV irradiation (sunburn), and skeletal bone pain due to fracture or cancer. Other possible future therapies examined in this review include small-molecule TrkA antagonists, which target either the extracellular NGF binding domain of TrkA or its intracellular tyrosine kinase domain.

Clinical relevance of the neurotrophins and their receptors.

The neurotrophins are growth factors required by discrete neuronal cell types for survival and maintenance, with a broad range of activities in the central and peripheral nervous system in the developing and adult mammal. This review examines their role in diverse disease states, including Alzheimer's disease, depression, pain and asthma. In addition, the role of BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor) in synaptic plasticity and memory formation is discussed. Unlike the other neurotrophins, BDNF is secreted in an activity-dependent manner that allows the highly controlled release required for synaptic regulation. Evidence is discussed which shows that sequestration of NGF (nerve growth factor) is able to reverse symptoms of inflammatory pain and asthma in animal models. Both pain and asthma show an underlying pathophysiology linked to increases in endogenous NGF and subsequent NGF-dependent increase in BDNF. Conversely, in Alzheimer's disease, there is a role for NGF in the treatment of the disease and a recent clinical trial has shown benefit from its exogenous application. In addition, reductions in BDNF, and changes in the processing and usage of NGF, are evident and it is possible that both NGF and BDNF play a part in the aetiology of the disease process. This highly selective choice of functions and disease states related to neurotrophin function, although in no way comprehensive, illustrates the importance of the neurotrophins in the brain, the peripheral nervous system and in non-neuronal tissues. Ways in which the neurotrophins, their receptors or agonists/antagonists may act therapeutically are discussed.

Pulmonary distribution, regulation, and functional role of Trk receptors in a murine model of asthma.

BACKGROUND: Neurotrophins have been implicated in the pathogenesis of asthma because of their ability to promote hyperreactivity of sensory neurons and to induce airway inflammation. Hyperreactivity of sensory nerves is one key mechanism of airway hyperreactivity that is defined as an abnormal reactivity of the airways to unspecific stimuli, such as cold air and cigarette smoke. Neurotrophins use a dual-receptor system consisting of Trk receptor tyrosine kinases and the structurally unrelated p75 neurotrophin receptor. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to characterize the distribution, allergen-dependent regulation, and functional relevance of the Trk receptors in allergic asthma. METHODS: BALB/c mice were sensitized to ovalbumin. After provocation with ovalbumin or vehicle aerosol, respectively, Trk receptor expression was analyzed in lung tissue by means of fluorescence microscopy and quantitative RT-PCR. To assess the functional relevance of Trk receptors in asthma, we tested the effects of the intranasally administered pan-Trk receptor decoy REN1826. Allergic airway inflammation was quantified and lung function was measured by using head-out body plethysmography. RESULTS: Trk receptors were expressed in neurons, airway smooth muscle cells, and cells of the inflammatory infiltrate surrounding the bronchi and upregulated after allergen challenge. Local application of REN1826 reduced IL-4 and IL-5 cytokine levels but had no effect on IL-13 levels or the cellular composition of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid cells. Furthermore, REN1826 decreased broncho-obstruction in response to sensory stimuli, indicating a diminished hyperreactivity of sensory nerves, but did not influence airway smooth muscle hyperreactivity in response to methacholine. CONCLUSION: These results emphasize the important role of Trk receptor signaling in the development of asthma. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Our data indicate that blocking of Trk receptor signaling might reduce asthma symptoms.

TrkAd5: A novel therapeutic agent for treatment of inflammatory pain and asthma.

Elevated levels of nerve growth factor have been linked to the onset and persistence of many pain-related disorders and asthma. Described here are the design, expression, refolding, and purification of a monomeric (nonstrand-swapped) form of the binding domain of the nerve growth factor receptor, designated TrkAd5. We have shown that TrkAd5 produced recombinantly binds nerve growth factor with picomolar affinity. TrkAd5 has been characterized using a variety of biophysical and biochemical assays and is shown here to be stable in both plasma and urine. The palliative effects of TrkAd5 are demonstrated in animal models of inflammatory pain and allergic asthma. We conclude that TrkAd5 will prove effective in ameliorating both acute and chronic conditions where nerve growth factor acts as a mediator and suggest a role for its application in vivo as a novel therapeutic.

Decrease in bladder overactivity with REN1820 in rats with cyclophosphamide induced cystitis.

PURPOSE: Studies suggest that nerve growth factor (NGF) contributes to bladder overactivity stemming from bladder inflammation. Studies were performed to determine the NGF dependence of cyclophosphamide (CYP) induced changes in bladder function using the recombinant NGF sequestering protein REN1820. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Urodynamic testing and behavioral observations were made in female rats treated with CYP (4 or 48 hours) and REN1820 or vehicle. RESULTS: Rats examined 4 or 48 hours after CYP treatment plus REN1820 showed significantly fewer nonvoiding contractions with smaller amplitude (p

alpha- and beta-secretase: profound changes in Alzheimer's disease.

The amyloid plaque, a neuropathological hallmark of Alzheimer's disease, is produced by the deposition of beta-amyloid (Abeta) peptide, which is cleaved from Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP) by the enzyme beta-secretase. Only small amounts of Abeta form in normal brain; more typically this is precluded by the processing of APP by alpha-secretase. Here, we describe a decrease in alpha-secretase (81% of normal) and a large increase in beta-secretase activity (185%) in sporadic Alzheimer's disease temporal cortex. Since alpha-secretase is present principally in neurons known to be vulnerable in Alzheimer's disease, and there is known competition between alpha- and beta-secretase for the substrate APP, it is significant that the majority of Alzheimer samples tested here were low in alpha-secretase. Eighty percent of Alzheimer brains examined had an increase in beta-secretase, a decrease in alpha-secretase, or both; which may account for the means by which the majority of people develop Alzheimer's disease.

A discrete domain of the human TrkB receptor defines the binding sites for BDNF and NT-4.

TrkB is a member of the Trk family of tyrosine kinase receptors. In vivo, the extracellular region of TrkB is known to bind, with high affinity, the neurotrophin protein brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and neurotrophin-4 (NT-4). We describe the expression and purification of the second Ig-like domain of human TrkB (TrkBIg(2)) and show, using surface plasmon resonance, that this domain is sufficient to bind BDNF and NT-4 with subnanomolar affinity. BDNF and NT-4 may have therapeutic implications for a variety of neurodegenerative diseases. The specificity of binding of the neurotrophins to their receptor TrkB is therefore of interest. We examine the specificity of TrkBIg(2) for all the neurotrophins, and use our molecular model of the BDNF-TrkBIg(2) complex to examine the residues involved in binding. It is hoped that the understanding of specific interactions will allow design of small molecule neurotrophin mimetics.