Income variability and incident cardiovascular disease in diabetes: a population-based cohort study.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Longitudinal change in income is crucial in explaining cardiovascular health inequalities. However, there is limited evidence for cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk associated with income dynamics over time among individuals with type 2 diabetes (T2D). METHODS: Using a nationally representative sample from the Korean National Health Insurance Service database, 1 528 108 adults aged 30-64 with T2D and no history of CVD were included from 2009 to 2012 (mean follow-up of 7.3 years). Using monthly health insurance premium information, income levels were assessed annually for the baseline year and the four preceding years. Income variability was defined as the intraindividual standard deviation of the percent change in income over 5 years. The primary outcome was a composite event of incident fatal and nonfatal CVD (myocardial infarction, heart failure, and stroke) using insurance claims. Hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were estimated after adjusting for potential confounders. RESULTS: High-income variability was associated with increased CVD risk (HRhighest vs. lowest quartile 1.25, 95% CI 1.22-1.27; Ptrend < .001). Individuals who experienced an income decline (4 years ago vs. baseline) had increased CVD risk, which was particularly notable when the income decreased to the lowest level (i.e. Medical Aid beneficiaries), regardless of their initial income status. Sustained low income (i.e. lowest income quartile) over 5 years was associated with increased CVD risk (HRn = 5 years vs. n = 0 years 1.38, 95% CI 1.35-1.41; Ptrend < .0001), whereas sustained high income (i.e. highest income quartile) was associated with decreased CVD risk (HRn = 5 years vs. n = 0 years 0.71, 95% CI 0.70-0.72; Ptrend < .0001). Sensitivity analyses, exploring potential mediators, such as lifestyle-related factors and obesity, supported the main results. CONCLUSIONS: Higher income variability, income declines, and sustained low income were associated with increased CVD risk. Our findings highlight the need to better understand the mechanisms by which income dynamics impact CVD risk among individuals with T2D.

Associations of Anxiety Symptoms With 6-Year Blood Pressure Changes and Incident Hypertension: Results From the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos.

BACKGROUND: Despite the high burden of anxiety and hypertension in Hispanic/Latino adults, little is known about their association in this population. PURPOSE: To examine the associations of anxiety symptoms with 6-year changes in blood pressure (BP) and incident hypertension in Hispanic/Latino adults. METHODS: We examined data from a probability sample of 10,881 Hispanic/Latino persons aged 18-74 who attended visits 1 (V1; 2008-2011) and 2 (V2; 2014-2017) of the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos (HCHS/SOL), a prospective cohort study. Anxiety symptoms were assessed at V1 using the 10-item Spielberger Trait Anxiety Scale (M = 17.1; Range = 10-40) and dichotomized using a cut-point of 20, the highest quartile in this cohort. BP was measured at both visits using a standardized protocol. RESULTS: Adults with elevated anxiety symptoms had a 1.02 mm Hg greater increase in systolic (p = .02) and a 0.75 mm Hg greater increase in diastolic BP (p = .02) over 6.1 years than those with lower symptoms, after adjusting for sociodemographic and clinical covariates. These associations differed by sex. Elevated anxiety was associated with a greater increase in systolic and diastolic BP in men only. Among persons without hypertension at V1 (N = 7,412), those with elevated anxiety symptoms at V1 had a 22% higher incidence of hypertension (p = .02) 6.1 years later. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings underscore the importance of screening for and treating elevated anxiety symptoms to help prevent hypertension. Further research on the role of sex and underlying mechanisms is warranted.

This study investigated the relationship between anxiety symptoms and changes in blood pressure, as well as the incidence of hypertension among Hispanic/Latino adults over time. Using data from 10,881 Hispanic/Latino adults who participated in the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos, we found that men, but not women, with elevated anxiety symptoms experienced a greater increase in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure over a 6-year period compared to those with lower symptoms. Additionally, among 7,412 participants who were free of hypertension at baseline, individuals with elevated anxiety symptoms developed hypertension at a higher rate after 6 years of follow-up compared to those with lower symptoms. These findings suggest that anxiety symptoms play a role in the development of hypertension among Hispanic/Latino adults, underscoring the importance of screening for and addressing elevated anxiety to potentially prevent hypertension.

Association of Low Hourly Wages in Middle Age With Faster Memory Decline in Older Age: Evidence From the Health and Retirement Study.

Little research has investigated the long-term relationship between low wages and memory decline, despite the growing share of low-wage workers in the US labor market. Here, we examined whether cumulative exposure to low wages over 12 years in midlife is associated with memory decline in later life. Using 1992-2016 data from the Health and Retirement Study, we analyzed data from 2,879 individuals born in 1936-1941 using confounder-adjusted linear mixed-effects models. Low-wage work was defined as an hourly wage lower than two-thirds of the federal median wage for the corresponding year and was categorized into "never," "intermittent," and "sustained" based on wages earned from 1992 to 2004. Memory function was measured at each study visit from 2004 to 2016 via a memory composite score. The confounder-adjusted annual rate of memory decline among "never" low-wage earners was -0.12 standard units (95% confidence interval: -0.13, -0.10). Compared with this, memory decline among workers with sustained earning of low midlife wages was significantly faster (ßtime×sustained = -0.014, 95% confidence interval: -0.02, -0.01), corresponding to an annual rate of -0.13 standard units for this group. Sustained low-wage earning in midlife was significantly associated with a downward trajectory of memory performance in older age. Enhancing social policies to protect low-wage workers may be especially beneficial for their cognitive health.

Racial Residential Segregation in Young Adulthood and Brain Integrity in Middle Age: Can We Learn From Small Samples?

Racial residential segregation is associated with multiple adverse health outcomes in Black individuals. Yet, the influence of structural racism and racial residential segregation on brain aging is less understood. In this study, we investigated the association between cumulative exposure to racial residential segregation over 25 years (1985-2010) in young adulthood, as measured by the Getis-Ord Gi* statistic, and year 25 measures of brain volume (cerebral, gray matter, white matter, and hippocampal volumes) in midlife. We studied 290 Black participants with available brain imaging data who were enrolled in the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) Study, a prospective cohort study. CARDIA investigators originally recruited 2,637 Black participants aged 18-30 years from 4 field centers across the United States. We conducted analyses using marginal structural models, incorporating inverse probability of treatment weighting and inverse probability of censoring weighting. We found that compared with low/medium segregation, greater cumulative exposure to a high level of racial residential segregation throughout young adulthood was associated with smaller brain volumes in general (e.g., for cerebral volume, ß = -0.08, 95% confidence interval: -0.15, -0.02) and with a more pronounced reduction in hippocampal volume, though results were not statistically significant. Our findings suggest that exposure to segregated neighborhoods may be associated with worse brain aging.

Acculturation and Associations with Ultra-processed Food Consumption among Asian Americans: NHANES, 2011-2018.

BACKGROUND: Ultra-processed food (UPF) consumption is linked to adverse health outcomes, including cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality. Asian Americans (AAs) are the fastest growing ethnic group in the United States, yet their dietary patterns have seldom been described. OBJECTIVES: The aim was to characterize UPF consumption among AAs and determine whether acculturation is associated with increased UPF consumption. METHODS: The NHANES is an annual, cross-sectional survey representative of the US population. We examined 2011-2018 NHANES data, which included 2404 AAs ≥18 y old with valid 24-h dietary recall. Using day 1 dietary recall data, we characterized UPF consumption as the percentage of caloric intake from UPFs, using the NOVA classification system. Acculturation was characterized by nativity status, nativity status and years in the United States combined, home language, and an acculturation index. We assessed the association between acculturation and UPF consumption using linear regression analyses adjusted for age, sex, marital status, education, income, self-reported health, and self-reported diet quality. RESULTS: UPFs provided, on average, 39.3% (95% CI: 38.1%, 40.5%) of total energy intake among AAs. In adjusted regression analyses, UPF consumption was 14% (95% CI: 9.5%, 17.5%; P < 0.05) greater among those with the highest compared with the lowest acculturation index score, 12% (95% CI: 8.5%, 14.7%: P < 0.05) greater among those who speak English only compared with non-English only in the home, 12% (95% CI: 8.6%, 14.7%: P < 0.05) greater among US-born compared with foreign-born AAs, and 15% (95% CI: 10.7%, 18.3%: P < 0.05) greater among US-born compared with foreign-born AAs with <10 y in the United States. CONCLUSIONS: UPF consumption was common among AAs, and acculturation was strongly associated with greater proportional UPF intake. As the US-born AA population continues to grow, UPF consumption in this group is likely to increase. Further research on disaggregated AA subgroups is warranted to inform culturally tailored dietary interventions.

Associations of sodium and potassium intake with chronic kidney disease in a prospective cohort study: findings from the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos, 2008-2017.

BACKGROUND: According to dietary recommendations, reduction of sodium intake has potential to reduce Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) risk; however the role of dietary potassium and the sodium -to- potassium ratio in the development of CKD is unclear. METHODS: We studied 9778 participants of the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos (HCHS/SOL) from four US urban communities. Participants were aged 18-74 yrs., free from CKD at baseline in 2008-2011 and re-examined between 2014 and - 2017. Dietary intake of sodium, potassium and the ratio of dietary sodium -to- potassium were measured from two baseline 24-h dietary recalls. Incident CKD was defined as: 1) estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) decline of 1 unit per year and eGFR < 60 ml/min/1.73m2 or 2) albumin to creatinine ratio ≥ 30 mg/g at the follow-up visit. We used multivariable survey weighted Poisson regression to estimate adjusted incident rates of incident CKD. RESULTS: At baseline, mean age was 41 years. Average follow up time was 6.2 years. From fully adjusted Poisson regression analyses, self-reported sodium intake was not associated with incident CKD. However, for each 500 mg decrement in potassium intake, there was an 11% increase risk of incident CKD (IRR = 1.11, 95% CI = 1.00, 1.24). Additionally, every 1 M ratio increment of sodium -to -potassium ratio was associated with a 21% increased risk of incident CKD (IRR = 1.21, 95% CI = 1.02, 1.45), p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that diets low in potassium and high in sodium are associated with increased risk of developing chronic kidney disease among healthy US Hispanic/Latino adults.

Associations between dietary fatty acid patterns and cognitive function in the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos.

Our objective was to quantify the cross-sectional associations between dietary fatty acid (DFA) patterns and cognitive function among Hispanic/Latino adults. This study included data from 8,942 participants of the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos, a population-based cohort study (weighted age 56.2 y and proportion female 55.2%). The NCI (National Cancer Institute) method was used to estimate dietary intake from two 24-hr recalls. We derived DFA patterns using principal components analysis with 26 fatty acid and total plant and animal monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) input variables. Global cognitive function was calculated as the average z-score of 4 neurocognitive tests. Survey linear regression models included multiple potential confounders such as age, sex, education, depressive symptoms, physical activity, energy intake, and cardiovascular disease. DFA patterns were characterized by consumption of long-chain saturated fatty acids (SFA), animal-based MUFA, and trans fatty acids (Factor 1); short to medium-chain SFA (Factor 2); very-long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) (Factor 3); very-long-chain SFA and plant-based MUFA and PUFA (Factor 4). Factor 2 was associated with greater scores for global cognitive function (ß=0.037 ± 0.012) and the Digit Symbol Substitution (DSS) (ß=0.56±0.17), Brief Spanish English Verbal Learning-Sum (B-SEVLT) (ß=0.23 ± 0.11), and B-SEVLT-Recall (ß=0.11 ± 0.05) tests (P<0.05 for all). Factors 1 (ß=0.04 ± 0.01) and 4 (ß=0.70 ± 0.18) were associated with the DSS test (P<0.05 for all). Consumption of short to medium-chain SFA may be associated with higher cognitive function among U.S.-residing Hispanic/Latino adults. Prospective studies are necessary to confirm these findings.

Associations of Income Volatility With Incident Cardiovascular Disease and All-Cause Mortality in a US Cohort.

BACKGROUND: Income volatility is on the rise and presents a growing public health problem. Because in many epidemiological studies income is measured at a single point in time, the association of long-term income volatility with incident cardiovascular disease (CVD) and mortality has not been adequately explored. The goal of this study was to examine associations of income volatility from 1990 to 2005 with incident CVD and all-cause mortality in the subsequent 10 years. METHODS: The Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults Study is an ongoing prospective cohort study conducted within urban field centers in Birmingham, AL; Chicago, IL; Minneapolis, MN; and Oakland, CA. We studied 3937 black and white participants 23 to 35 years of age in 1990 (our study baseline). Income volatility was defined as the intraindividual SD of the percent change in income across 5 assessments from 1990 to 2005. An income drop was defined as a decrease of ≥25% from the previous visit and less than the participant's average income from 1990 to 2005. CVD events (fatal and nonfatal) and all-cause mortality between 2005 and 2015 were adjudicated with the use of medical records and death certificates. CVD included primarily acute events related to heart disease and stroke. RESULTS: A total of 106 CVD events and 164 deaths occurred between 2005 and 2015 (incident rate, 2.76 and 3.66 per 1000 person-years, respectively). From Cox models adjusted for sociodemographic, behavioral, and CVD risk factors, higher income volatility and more income drops were associated with greater CVD risk (high versus low volatility: hazard ratio, 2.07; 95% CI, 1.10-3.90; ≥2 versus 0 income drops: hazard ratio, 2.54; 95% CI, 1.24-5.19) and all-cause mortality (high versus low volatility: hazard ratio, 1.78; 95% CI,1.03-3.09; ≥2 versus 0 income drops: hazard ratio, 1.92; 95% CI, 1.07-3.44). CONCLUSIONS: In a cohort of relatively young adults, income volatility and drops during a 15-year period of formative earning years were independently associated with a nearly 2-fold risk of CVD and all-cause mortality.

Results of the CARDIA study suggest that higher dietary potassium may be kidney protective.

The association between dietary sodium and potassium intake with the development of kidney disease remains unclear, particularly among younger individuals. Here, we determined whether dietary sodium and potassium intake are associated with incident chronic kidney disease (CKD) using data from 1,030 adults (age 23-35 in 1990-1991) from the Coronary Artery Risk Development In Young Adults study, based on repeated measurements of estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and urinary albumin to creatinine ratio (ACR) from 1995 through 2015. Urinary sodium and potassium excretion (mg/day), calculated from three 24-hour urine collections in 1990-1991, were averaged to measure sodium and potassium intake. Serum creatinine was used to calculate eGFR using the CKD EPI equation; spot urine albumin and creatinine were used to calculate ACR, each at five visits from 1995-1996 through 2015-2016. CKD was defined as decreased eGFR (under 60 ml/min/1.73m2) or the development of albuminuria (ACR over 30 mg/g). We used log binomial regression models adjusted for socio-demographic, behavioral, and clinical factors to determine whether sodium and potassium intake were associated with incident CKD (decreased eGFR or developed albuminuria) among those free of CKD in 1995. Dietary sodium intake was not significantly associated with incident CKD. However, every 1,000 mg/day increment of potassium intake in 1990 was significantly associated with a 29% lower risk of incident albuminuria (relative risk 0.71, 95% confidence interval 0.53, 0.95), but not eGFR. Thus, higher dietary potassium intake may protect against the development of kidney damage, particularly albuminuria.

Elucidating the Multidimensionality of Socioeconomic Status in Relation to Metabolic Syndrome in the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos (HCHS/SOL).

BACKGROUND: Socioeconomic (SES) factors underlying disparities in the prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MetSyn) and consequently, type 2 diabetes among Hispanics/Latino populations are of considerable clinical and public health interest. However, incomplete and/or imprecise measurement of the multidimensional SES construct has impeded a full understanding of how SES contributes to disparities in metabolic disease. Consequently, a latent-variable model of the SES-MetSyn association was investigated and compared with the more typical proxy-variable model. METHODS: A community-based cross-sectional probability sample (2008-2011) of 14,029 Hispanic/Latino individuals of Puerto Rican, Cuban, Dominican, Central American, South American, and Mexican ancestry living in the USA was used. SES proxy's education, income, and employment were examined as effect indicators of a latent variable, and as individual predictors. MetSyn was defined using 2009 harmonized guidelines, and MetSyn components were also examined individually. RESULTS: In multivariate regression analyses, the SES latent variable was associated with 9% decreased odds of MetSyn (95% confidence interval: 0.85, 0.96, P < .001) and was associated with all MetSyn components, except diastolic blood pressure. Additionally, greater income, education, and employment status were associated with 4%, 3%, and 24% decreased odds of having MetSyn, respectively (Ps < .001). The income-MetSyn association was only significant for women and those with current health insurance. CONCLUSIONS: Hispanic/Latinos exhibit an inverse association between SES and MetSyn of varying magnitudes across SES variables. Public health research is needed to further probe these relationships, particularly among Hispanic/Latina women, to ultimately improve healthcare access to prevent diabetes in this underserved population.

Sociodemographic Disparities in Long-Term Mortality Among Stroke Survivors in the United States.

Background and Purpose- It is unclear whether disparities in mortality among stroke survivors exist long term. Therefore, the purpose of the current study is to describe rates of longer term mortality among stroke survivors (ie, beyond 30 days) and to determine whether socioeconomic disparities exist. Methods- This analysis included 1329 black and white participants, aged ≥45 years, enrolled between 2003 and 2007 in the REGARDS study (Reasons for Geographic and Racial Differences in Stroke) who suffered a first stroke and survived at least 30 days after the event. Long-term mortality among stroke survivors was defined in person-years as time from 30 days after a first stroke to date of death or censoring. Mortality rate ratios (MRRs) were used to compare rates of poststroke mortality by demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. Results- Among adults who survived ≥30 days poststroke, the age-adjusted rate of mortality was 82.3 per 1000 person-years (95% CI, 75.4-89.2). Long-term mortality among stroke survivors was higher in older individuals (MRR for 75+ versus <65, 3.2; 95% CI, 2.6-4.1) and among men than women (MRR, 1.3; 95% CI, 1.1-1.6). It was also higher among those with less educational attainment (MRR for less than high-school versus college graduate, 1.5; 95% CI, 1.1-1.9), lower income (MRR for <$20k versus >50k, 1.4; 95% CI, 1.1-1.9), and lower neighborhood socioeconomic status (SES; MRR for low versus high neighborhood SES, 1.4; 95% CI, 1.1-1.7). There were no differences in age-adjusted rates of long-term poststroke mortality by race, rurality, or US region. Conclusions- Rates of long-term mortality among stroke survivors were higher among individuals with lower SES and among those residing in neighborhoods of lower SES. These results emphasize the need for improvements in long-term care poststroke, especially among individuals of lower SES.

Sugary Drink Consumption Among NYC Children, Youth, and Adults: Disparities Persist Over Time, 2007-2015.

Sugary drink consumption is associated with many adverse health outcomes, including weight gain, diabetes, and other chronic conditions. These beverages are widely marketed and ubiquitously available. This analysis explores sugary drink consumption across all age groups among New York City (NYC) residents using representative survey data. Three population-based representative surveys of NYC residents of different age groups were analyzed. Adult participants, youth participants, and caregivers of child participants self-reported the number of sugary drinks they consumed per day. Mean sugary drink intake per day was estimated overall and by demographic characteristics, for the 2015 cycle of each survey and the 2007-2015 cycles of the adult survey. T tests were used to determine whether means differed by demographics. Long-term trends in mean sugary drink consumption among adult participants were conducted to examine changes over time overall and by demographic characteristics. In 2015, the mean daily number of sugary drinks consumed was 0.53 (95% CI 0.45, 0.61) among children 0-5 years old, 1.05 (95% CI 0.90, 1.21) among children 6-12 years old, and 1.16 (95% CI 1.09, 1.29) among NYC high school students. Among all NYC adults, sugary drink intake decreased 36% from 1.03 (95% CI 0.99, 1.08) in 2007 to 0.66 (95% CI 0.62, 0.70) drinks per day in 2015, p < 0.01. However, at each age level, there were persistent disparities in sugary drink consumption by sex, race/ethnicity, educational attainment, and poverty level. Decreasing overall rates of sugary drink consumption are promising; however, disparities by socio-demographics are a concern. Reducing sugary drink consumption across all ages is recommended as is minimizing the introduction at an early age. Reduction of sugary drink consumption will require a collaborative, multi-sectoral approach.

Gestational diabetes and cardiovascular risk factors and disease in U.S. Hispanics/Latinas in the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos (HCHS/SOL).

To compare cardiovascular risk and disease prevalence in U.S. Hispanics/Latinas with and without a history of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). Cross-sectional data from 2008 to 2011 were analyzed for 8,262 (305 with GDM history) parous women, aged 20-73 years, from the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos (HCHS/SOL). Women with and without a history of GDM were compared on sociodemographic, cardiovascular risk factor, and disease data from standardized interviews and fasting blood tests, using chi-square tests, t-tests, and logistic regressions to determine odds ratios (ORs) and 95 percent confidence intervals (CIs). Adjusting for covariates, compared to those without a history of GDM, women with a history of GDM were younger (M = 39.1 years [95 percent CI = 37.8, 41.6] vs. 45.5 years [95 percent CI = 44.9, 46.1]) and more likely to have health insurance (68.1 percent [95 percent CI = 60.3 percent, 76.0 percent] vs. 54.9 percent [95 percent CI = 52.8 percent, 57.1 percent]), had greater waist circumference (M = 102.3 cm, [95 percent CI = 100.2, 104.3] vs. 98.1 cm [95 percent CI = 97.4, 98.5]) and higher fasting glucose (116.0 mg/dL [95 percent CI = 107.8, 124.3] vs. 104.2 mg/dL [95 percent CI = 103.4, 105.1]), and had higher odds of having metabolic syndrome (OR = 1.7 [95 percent CI = 1.2, 2.6]) or diabetes (OR = 3.3 [95 percent CI = 2.2, 4.8]). Prevalences of heart and cerebrovascular disease were similar. GDM history was positively associated with diabetes but not with cardiovascular disease.

Prolonged, Uninterrupted Sedentary Behavior and Glycemic Biomarkers Among US Hispanic/Latino Adults: The HCHS/SOL (Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos).

BACKGROUND: Excessive sedentary time is ubiquitous in developed nations and is associated with deleterious health outcomes. Few studies have examined whether the manner in which sedentary time is accrued (in short or long bouts) carries any clinical relevance. The purpose of this study was to examine the association of prolonged, uninterrupted sedentary behavior with glycemic biomarkers in a cohort of US Hispanic/Latino adults. METHODS: We studied 12 083 participants from the HCHS/SOL (Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos), a population-based study of Hispanic/Latino adults 18 to 74 years of age. Homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance and glycosylated hemoglobin were measured from a fasting blood sample, and 2-hour glucose was measured after an oral glucose tolerance test. Sedentary time was objectively measured with a hip-mounted accelerometer. Prolonged, uninterrupted sedentariness was expressed as mean sedentary bout length. RESULTS: After adjustment for potential confounders and moderate to vigorous physical activity, longer sedentary bout duration was dose-dependently associated with increased homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (P for trend<0.001) and 2-hour glucose levels (P for trend=0.015). These associations were not independent of total sedentary time; however, a significant interaction between sedentary bout duration and total sedentary time was observed. Evaluation of the joint association of total sedentary time and sedentary bout duration showed that participants in the upper quartile for both sedentary characteristics (ie, high total sedentary time and high sedentary bout duration) had the highest levels of homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (P<0.001 versus low group for both sedentary characteristics) and 2-hour glucose (P=0.002 versus low group for both sedentary characteristics). High total sedentary time or high sedentary bout duration alone were not associated with differences in any glycemic biomarkers. CONCLUSIONS: Accruing sedentary time in prolonged, uninterrupted bouts may be deleteriously associated with biomarkers of glucose regulation.

Association Between Sustained Poverty and Changes in Body Mass Index, 1990-2015: The Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults Study.

We sought to determine whether sustained poverty is associated with change in body mass index (BMI, calculated as weight (kg)/height (m)2) among 4,762 black and white adults from the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults study. Household income in the prior year and current BMI were measured at 7 visits between 1990 and 2015. Sustained poverty was the proportion of visits during which household income was below 200% of the federal poverty level (range, 0%-100%). Sustained poverty and BMI were time-updated. Mean age in 1990 was 30 years. In adjusted linear mixed-effects models, every 10% increase in sustained poverty was significantly associated with faster BMI growth among white men (0.004/year, 95% CI: 0.001, 0.008) and white women (0.003/year, 95% CI: 0.000, 0.006), and slower BMI growth among black men (-0.008/year, 95% CI: -0.010, -0.005) and black women (-0.003/year, 95% CI: -0.006, 0.000). In other words, being always versus never in poverty from 1990 to 2015 was predicted to result in greater BMI gain by 1.00 unit and 0.75 units among white men and women and less BMI gain by 2.0 units and 0.75 units among black men and women, respectively. Sustained poverty was a predictor of changes in BMI with differential associations according to race.

Low income and education are associated with greater ASCVD risk scores among adults in the US.

Introduction: Social determinants of health (SDOH) are fundamental causes of poor cardiovascular health, yet cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk assessment tools exclude SDOH. Our objective was to determine whether SDOH are independently associated with CVD risk in US adults. Methods: Utilizing the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), we combined years 1999-2018 and included participants aged 40-79 without history of CVD and with information to calculate CVD risk (n = 21,694). Ten-year risk of atherosclerotic CVD (ASCVD) was calculated using the American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology (AHA/ACC) pooled cohort equations. We used linear regression models to estimate the association between SDOH and ASCVD risk, after adjusting for demographic factors. All analyses accounted for the complex survey design. Results: Mean age was 54.7 years, with 52.7 % female, 73.8 % non-Hispanic White, 9.4 % non-Hispanic Black, and 10.7 % Hispanic. From adjusted models, compared with an income of ≥ $75 K, ASCVD risk was greater by 3.06 (95 % CI: 2.65, 3.47) among those with income < $25 K, by 1.55 (95 % CI: 1.21, 1.89) among those with income $25 K-<$55 K, and by 1.20 (95 % CI: 0.84, 1.56) among those with income $55 K-<$75 K. Compared to college graduates, ASCVD risk was greater by 3.09 (95 % CI: 2.56, 3.62) among those with less than a high school education, by 1.65 (95 % CI: 1.31, 200) among those who were high school graduates, and by 1.41 (95 % CI: 1.11, 1.72) among those with some college education. Conclusion: We found strong graded associations between lower income and lower educational attainment with greater CVD risk.

Length of Time in the United States and Cardiometabolic Outcomes Among Foreign and US-Born Black Adults.

INTRODUCTION: Among certain immigrant groups, length of time spent living in the United States (LOT) is associated with poor cardiometabolic health. We aimed to evaluate the association between LOT and cardiometabolic outcomes among US Black adults. METHODS: The National Health Interview Survey is an annual representative survey of non-institutionalized US civilians. We combined 2016-2018 data and included all Black adults (N = 10,034). LOT was defined as the number of years lived in the US, if foreign-born. Obesity, hypertension, diabetes, and high cholesterol were each self-reported. We used logistic regression models to determine whether LOT was associated with cardiometabolic health factors overall and by origin subgroups-US-born non-Hispanic, Hispanic, African-born, and Caribbean/Central American (CA)-born groups. RESULTS: Our study population was 81% US-born non-Hispanic, 5% Hispanic (both foreign- and US-born), 6% African-born, and 6% Caribbean/CA-born groups. Among Black adults, compared with the US-born, being foreign-born with < 15 years in the US was associated with lower odds of obesity (OR: 0.31, 95%CI: 0.23-0.42) and hypertension (OR: 0.35, 95%CI: 0.24-0.49). In subgroup analyses, Caribbean/CA-born individuals with < 15 years in the US had 64% lower odds of obesity (OR: 0.36, 95%CI 0.15-0.84) and 63% lower odds of hypertension (OR: 0.37, 95%CI 0.15-0.88) compared with those with ≥ 15 years. CONCLUSION: Shorter LOT was associated with more favorable cardiometabolic health, with differential associations among foreign-born Black adults based on origin. This heterogeneity suggests a need to examine the implications of acculturation in the context of the specific population of interest.

Associations Between Ultra-processed Food Consumption and Cardiometabolic Health Among Older US Adults: Comparing Older Asian Americans to Older Adults From Other Major Race-Ethnic Groups.

Using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2001-2018; N = 19,602), this study examined whether ultra-processed food (UPF) consumption is associated with cardiometabolic health (obesity, hypertension, high cholesterol, and diabetes), among White, Black, Hispanic, and Asian Americans (AA) US adults 50 or older. Diet was assessed using 24 hour dietary recall. NOVA dietary classification system was used to calculate the percentage of caloric intake derived from UPFs. Cardiometabolic information was assessed through physical examination, blood tests, and self-reported medication information. A median of 54% (IQR: 40%, 68%) of caloric intake was attributed to UPFs and was lowest for AAs (34%, IQR: 20%, 49%) and highest for White adults (56%; IQR: 42, 69%). In multivariable adjusted models, UPF consumption was associated with greater odds of obesity, high cholesterol, and diabetes. UPF consumption is associated with poor cardiometabolic health among all US older adults. For AAs, UPFs may be particularly obesogenic.

Long-Term Depressive Symptom Trajectories and Midlife Cognition: The CARDIA Study.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The nature of associations between depressive symptoms and cognition early in the life course remains unclear, and racial differences in these associations are not well characterized. The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between trajectories of depressive symptom over 20 years, beginning in young adulthood, and cognitive functions in middle-age among Black and White adults. METHODS: We used prospective data from participants of the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults Study. Depressive symptoms were measured at 5 study visits between 1990 and 2010 using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale. We used latent class group-based modeling to identify 4 trajectories: "persistently low," "persistently medium," "medium decreasing," and "high increasing" depressive symptoms. In 2015, cognitive function was measured using the Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST), Stroop test (reverse coded), and Rey Auditory-Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT).We excluded participants who missed the cognitive battery or had no depressive symptoms measurements, resulting in a total of 3,117 participants. All cognitive tests were standardized, and linear regression was used to relate depressive trajectories with 2015 cognitive functions. RESULTS: The mean [SD] baseline age was 30.1 [3.6] years, and 57% were female. The associations between depressive symptoms and cognition significantly differed by race (p < 0.05). Among Black individuals, compared with having "persistently low," having "medium decreasing," "persistently medium," or "high increasing" depressive symptoms were associated with worse verbal memory, processing speed, and executive function scores (RAVLT persistently medium vs low: ß = -0.30, 95% CI -0.48 to -0.12; and high increasing vs low: ß = -0.49, 95% CI -0.70 to -0.27; DSST persistently medium vs low: ß = -0.28, 95% CI -0.47 to -0.09; and high increasing vs low: ß = -0.64, 95% CI -0.87 to -0.42; Stroop persistently medium vs low: ß = -0.46, 95% CI -0.70 to -0.23; and high increasing vs low: ß = -0.76, 95% CI -1.04 to -0.47). Associations were slightly weaker among White individuals, but we still found that having 'high increasing' depressive symptoms was associated with worse verbal memory and processing speed scores (high increasing vs low: ß = -0.38, 95% CI -0.61 to -0.15; and ß = -0.40, 95% CI -0.63 to -0.18, respectively). DISCUSSION: Prolonged exposure to elevated depressive symptoms beginning in young adulthood may result in worse cognitive function over midlife. This association was stronger among Black adults.