A systems approach to understanding and improving health systems.

Health systems face the challenge of helping to improve health conditions. They occupy a priority place in middle- and lower-income countries, since the absence or fragility of health systems adversely impacts expected health outcomes. Thus, due to the direct relationship between programs and systems, the absence or weakness of either will result in a consequent deficiency in public health and the very execution of the programs. In the same vein, weakened health systems are one of the main bottlenecks to attaining the Millennium Development Goals. Systems thinking is one of the "four revolutions in progress" that are helping to transform health and health care systems. Within that framework, this article identifies conceptual and operational elements of systems applicable to health systems that contribute to overcoming the obstacles and inertia that hinder health activities and outcomes. It discusses relevant concepts characteristic of systems thinking, such as structural variables and dynamic complexity, the relationship between programs and health systems, and the monitoring and evaluation function, together with the role of innovation and systems integration as high-priority elements. This will aid in the development of designs that also stress the context of the components that guide management, identifying processes and outcomes in a health management continuum.

Social accountability of medical schools and academic primary care training in Latin America: principles but not practice.

BACKGROUND: Latin America has one of the highest rates of health disparities in the world and is experiencing a steep increase in its number of medical schools. It is not clear if medical school authorities consider social responsibility, defined as the institutional commitment to contribute to the improvement of community well-being, as a priority and if there are any organizational strategies that could reduce health disparities. OBJECTIVE: To study the significance and relevance of social responsibility in the academic training of medical schools in Latin America. METHODS: The study combined a qualitative thematic literature review of three databases with a quantitative design based on a sample of nine Latin American and non-Latin American countries. RESULTS: The thematic analysis showed high agreement among academic groups on considering medical schools as 'moral agents', part of a 'social contract' and with an institutional responsibility to reduce health disparities mainly through the implementation of strong academic primary care programs. The quantitative analysis showed a significant association between higher development of academic primary care programs and lower level of health disparities by country (P = 0.028). However, the data showed that most Latin American medical schools did not prioritize graduate primary care training. CONCLUSIONS: The study shows a discrepancy between the importance given to social responsibility and academic primary care training in Latin America and the practices implemented by medical schools. It highlights the need to refocus medical education policies in the region.

Comparison of Three Gestational Weight Gain Guidelines Under Use in Latin America.

Presently, three guidelines are used in Latin America to assess adequacy of maternal body mass index (BMI) during pregnancy: (1) the chart proposed by the Institute of Medicine of the United States (IOM), (2) the Rosso-Mardones Chart (RM), and (3) a modified RM chart proposed by Atalah et al. (AEA). The aim of the present review was to explore available information on the sensitivity, specificity, and both positive (PPV) and negative predictive values (NPV) of these charts to detect women at risk of delivering babies with the following signs of abnormal fetal growth: (a) length at birth (BL) <50 cm; (b) birth weight (BW) <3,000 g; and (c) BW ≥ 4,000 or 4,250 g. Data from studies conducted in large samples of Chilean and Uruguayan women indicate that the RM chart has the greatest sensitivity to identify at risk cases. However, predictive values were similar for the three charts. Thus, the use of the RM chart should be preferred. The main limitation for using the IOM weight gain recommendations in Latin American women stems from the fact that their average height is approximately 20 cm lower than US women.

Un enfoque sistémico para comprender y mejorar los sistemas de salud

Los sistemas de salud enfrentan el desafío de contribuir a mejorar las condiciones de salud, ocupando un lugar de importancia prioritario en los países de ingresos medios y bajos, dado que la ausencia o precariedad de los sistemas de salud repercuten de manera negativa en los resultados sanitarios esperados. Así también, debido a la directa relación entre los programas y sistemas, ya sea por la ausencia o debilidad de ambos, esto impactará en una consecuente falla en la salud pública y en la propia ejecución de los programas. En ese mismo sentido, los sistemas de salud debilitados son uno de los principales cuellos de botella en la consecución de los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio. El pensamiento sistémico constituye una de las “cuatro revoluciones en curso” que contribuyen a transformar la salud y sus sistemas de atención. En ese marco, este trabajo identifica aquellos elementos sistémicos de tipo conceptual y operacional aplicados a los sistemas de salud que ayudan a superar las trabas e inercias que entorpecen la gestión y los resultados sanitarios. Resultan relevantes conceptos propios del pensamiento sistémico tales como las variables estructurales y la complejidad dinámica, así como la incorporación de la relación entre los programas y los sistemas de salud, la función de monitoreo y evaluación junto al rol de la innovación y la integración de los sistemas como elementos de primera importancia. Esto contribuirá a establecer diseños que ponen de relieve también el contexto de aquellos components que orientan la gestión, identificando los procesos y resultados en un continuo de la gestión sanitaria.

Un enfoque sistémico para comprender y mejorar los sistemas de salud / A systems approach to understanding and improving health systems

Los sistemas de salud enfrentan el desafío de contribuir a mejorar las condiciones de salud, ocupando un lugar de importancia prioritario en los países de ingresos medios y bajos, dado que la ausencia o precariedad de los sistemas de salud repercuten de manera negativa en los resultados sanitarios esperados. Así también, debido a la directa relación entre los programas y sistemas, ya sea por la ausencia o debilidad de ambos, esto impactará en una consecuente falla en la salud pública y en la propia ejecución de los programas. En ese mismo sentido, los sistemas de salud debilitados son uno de los principales cuellos de botella en la consecución de los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio. El pensamiento sistémico constituye una de las "cuatro revoluciones en curso" que contribuyen a transformar la salud y sus sistemas de atención. En ese marco, este trabajo identifica aquellos elementos sistémicos de tipo conceptual y operacional aplicados a los sistemas de salud que ayudan a superar las trabas e inercias que entorpecen la gestión y los resultados sanitarios. Resultan relevantes conceptos propios del pensamiento sistémico tales como las variables estructurales y la complejidad dinámica, así como la incorporación de la relación entre los programas y los sistemas de salud, la función de monitoreo y evaluación junto al rol de la innovación y la integración de los sistemas como elementos de primera importancia. Esto contribuirá a establecer diseños que ponen de relieve también el contexto de aquellos componentes que orientan la gestión, identificando los procesos y resultados en un continuo de la gestión sanitaria.

Health systems face the challenge of helping to improve health conditions. They occupy a priority place in middle- and lower-income countries, since the absence or fragility of health systems adversely impacts expected health outcomes. Thus, due to the direct relationship between programs and systems, the absence or weakness of either will result in a consequent deficiency in public health and the very execution of the programs. In the same vein, weakened health systems are one of the main bottlenecks to attaining the Millennium Development Goals. Systems thinking is one of the "four revolutions in progress" that are helping to transform health and health care systems. Within that framework, this article identifies conceptual and operational elements of systems applicable to health systems that contribute to overcoming the obstacles and inertia that hinder health activities and outcomes. It discusses relevant concepts characteristic of systems thinking, such as structural variables and dynamic complexity, the relationship between programs and health systems, and the monitoring and evaluation function, together with the role of innovation and systems integration as high-priority elements. This will aid in the development of designs that also stress the context of the components that guide management, identifying processes and outcomes in a health management continuum.