The role of cerebrospinal fluid 14-3-3 and other proteins in the diagnosis of sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in the UK: a 10-year review.

BACKGROUND: It is 10 years since the detection of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) 14-3-3 was included in the diagnostic criteria for sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (sCJD) by the WHO. Since that time, other CSF proteins, such as S100b and tau protein, have been proposed as surrogate markers for sCJD. The authors aimed to investigate the diagnostic value of each of these three proteins. METHODS: CSF samples collected from patients who were referred to the National CJD Surveillance Unit as suspected cases of sCJD during the period 1997-2007 were analysed for 14-3-3, S100b and tau protein. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value of each of these markers, either alone or in combination for the diagnosis of sCJD, were assessed. The impact of CSF 14-3-3 analysis on the case classification of sCJD was investigated. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: CSF 14-3-3 had the greatest sensitivity (86%) when compared with tau protein (81%) and S100b (65%). The combination of a positive CSF 14-3-3 or an elevated tau protein with a raised S100b had the highest positive predictive power for sCJD. During the study period, 100 patients were classified as probable sCJD solely on the basis of the clinical features and a positive CSF 14-3-3. The most sensitive marker for sCJD was a positive CSF 14-3-3. The analysis of CSF 14-3-3 plays a crucial role in the case classification of sCJD.

7Alpha-methyl-19-nortestosterone maintains sexual behavior and mood in hypogonadal men.

The synthetic steroid 7alpha-methyl-19-nortestosterone (MENT) is a potent androgen that is resistant to 5alpha-reductase. It thus has decreased activity at the prostate and may have advantages over testosterone-based regimens in long term treatment or as part of a male contraceptive. Administration to eugonadal men results in suppression of gonadotropins, but its ability to support androgen-dependent behavior has not been investigated. For sustained release administration, MENT acetate was used, because its diffusion characteristics were more suitable for use in implants. However, upon release the acetate is rapidly hydrolyzed, and MENT is the biologically active moiety in circulation. We studied the effects of MENT on sexual interest and activity, spontaneous erection, and mood states in comparison with testosterone enanthate (TE) in 20 Caucasian and Chinese hypogonadal men recruited in Edinburgh and Hong Kong (n = 10 in each center). Outcomes were measured using a combination of daily diaries, semistructured interviews, and questionnaires. Nocturnal penile tumescence (NPT) was also recorded in the Edinburgh group. After withdrawal of androgen replacement treatment (wash-out phase) for a minimum of 6 weeks, subjects were randomized to two groups in a cross-over design. Drug treatment regimens were of 6-week duration and consisted of two implants, each containing 115 mg MENT acetate, inserted s.c. into the upper arm and removed after 6 weeks and two injections of TE (200 mg, i.m.) 3 weeks apart. MENT treatment resulted in stable plasma MENT concentrations of 1.4 +/- 0.1 nmol/L after 3 weeks and 1.3 +/- 0.1 nmol/L after 6 weeks (mean +/- SEM; all men). Nadir testosterone concentrations were 3.6 +/- 0.6 nmol/L at the end of the wash-out phase and 9.4 +/- 0.6 nmol/L 3 weeks after each injection. There were no differences in hormone concentrations between centers. There were no adverse toxicological effects. There were only minor differences between the two treatments. Both MENT and TE treatment resulted in significant increases in sexual interest and activity, spontaneous erection (both by self-report and NPT measurement), and increases in positive moods, with decreases in negative moods in the Edinburgh group. In the Hong Kong group, both treatments increased waking erection, with a trend toward increased sexual interest and activity. Mood states appeared to be less affected during the wash-out phase than in Edinburgh men and showed no significant response to either treatment. These results demonstrate that MENT has similar effects on sexual activity and mood states as testosterone in hypogonadal men. As NPT is a physiological androgen-dependant outcome, these data provide further evidence for the androgenicity of MENT. The lack of detected effect of either androgen in Hong Kong men other than on waking erection illustrates the importance of the cultural context of symptomatology and its measurement. The appropriate dose of MENT remains to be determined, but these results support its development as a potential androgen replacement therapy.

Sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and surgery: a case-control study using community controls.

BACKGROUND: The cause of sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) is unknown. Previous studies found a link with a history of surgery but had methodologic problems. OBJECTIVE: To help elucidate medical and associated risk factors for sporadic CJD as part of the 1993 to 1995 European Union collaborative studies of CJD. METHODS: Medical and associated risk factors from 326 patients with sporadic CJD, taken from population-based studies performed between 1993 and 1995 in France, Germany, the Netherlands, and the UK, were compared with 326 community controls recruited by telephone in 2000. RESULTS: A history of surgery was significantly associated with the risk of sporadic CJD (odds ratio [OR]: 1.8; 95% CI: 1.2 to 2.6), which was not dependent on the number of surgical procedures, and was stronger in females (OR: 2.5; 95% CI: 1.5 to 4.0). Gynecologic (OR: 1.5; 95% CI: 1.0 to 2.3) and "other" operations (any operation other than neurologic, eye, ear, gallbladder, gastrointestinal, and gynecologic operations, tonsillectomy, and appendectomy) (OR: 1.5; 95% CI: 1.1 to 2.1) were associated with risk of CJD. Tonsillectomy (OR: 0.3; 95% CI: 0.2 to 0.5) and appendectomy (OR: 0.6; 95% CI: 0.4 to 0.8) were observed less frequently in cases. An increased risk was also found with a history of ear piercing in females (OR: 1.6; 95% CI: 1.1 to 2.5) and psychiatric visit(s) (OR: 2.6; 95% CI: 1.5 to 4.3). CONCLUSIONS: These results support the hypothesis that cases of sporadic CJD may result from hitherto unrecognized surgical contamination events. However, because of the limits of the study design, the rarity of the disease, and the potential for bias, the results should be interpreted with caution.

The Scottish breast screening programme's experience of monitoring interval cancers.

OBJECTIVES: To present the Scottish interval cancer data from 1991 to 1995, compare the Scottish experience with results published by other programmes and trials, and document appropriate methodologies to achieve maximum ascertainment of interval cancers. SETTING: Scottish breast screening programme (part of the UK National Health Service breast screening programme). METHODS: Interval cancers were identified by linking breast screening data with registrations of invasive breast cancers from the National Scottish Cancer Register. The main outcome measures were the numbers, rates, and proportionate incidence of interval cancers, and rates of total and small (< 10 mm) screen detected invasive cancers diagnosed in this cohort of women. SUBJECTS: Women who attended the Scottish breast screening programme (Scottish NHSBSP) from 1 April 1991 to 31 March 1995. RESULTS: Interval cancer rates of 4.8, 12.1, and 12.1 per 10,000 women screened were calculated for the first, second, and third year after the last negative screen. Expressed as a proportion of the underlying incidence, the figures are 23%, 60%, and 59%. CONCLUSIONS: The Scottish data are comparable with those reported by other UK NHS breast screening programmes for the first and second years after the last negative screen. The interval cancer rate for the third year is appreciably lower. A longer follow up period would be of interest to provide greater evidence on which to base comparisons. Ascertainment of interval cancers depends vitally on the availability of complete, accurate, and timely national cancer registration data and highlights the value of national datasets.

Parity is a major determinant of success rate in medical abortion: a retrospective analysis of 3161 consecutive cases of early medical abortion treated with reduced doses of mifepristone and vaginal gemeprost.

The antiprogesterone mifepristone in combination with a suitable prostaglandin provides an effective method for induction of abortion in early pregnancy up to 63 days of gestation. The combination of 600 mg mifepristone followed by 1 mg of gemeprost vaginal pessary 48 h later is one of the standard regimens in practice, which is registered in several countries in Europe. In 1995, we reduced the doses for both mifepristone and gemeprost to 200 mg and 0.5 mg respectively, as this was shown to decrease significantly the incidence of side effects whilst maintaining a high efficacy. In this article, we report our experience with this regimen in routine clinical practice by analysing 3161 consecutive medical abortions retrospectively. Twelve case notes (0.4%) were not available, and for 310 (9.8%) women, the outcome was not known with certainty as they did not return for their follow up visit. Of the remaining 2839 women, 2732 (96.2%) had a complete abortion following their treatment. One-hundred-two (3.6%) women required an evacuation of the uterus: for incomplete abortion in 63 (2.2%) and ongoing pregnancy in 39 (1.4%). Three women had to undergo surgery for ectopic pregnancies. The surgical intervention rate was significantly higher at gestation of >49 days compared to < or = 49 days (5.7% vs. 2.6%, p = 0.002) and at >56 days than among those at < or = 56 days (6.7% vs. 3.1%; p <0.001). However, for incomplete abortion a significant increase was only seen at gestation >49 days compared to < or = 49 days (3% vs. 1.6%, p = 0.017). The incidence of ongoing pregnancies increased significantly only after 56 days of gestation compared to < or = 56 days (3.8% vs. 0.9%; p <0.001). Parity was related to the outcome with parous women having significantly more incomplete/ongoing abortions compared to nulliparous women (5.4% vs. 2.0%; p <0.001), although parous women did present earlier in pregnancy for termination than nulliparous women (p = 0.01). The incidence of complications was low: 165 (5.8%) women were given antibiotics for presumed genital infection and severe haemorrhage occurred in 11 (0.4%) women, of whom only two required blood transfusion. In summary, the recommended regimen with the reduced doses of mifepristone and gemeprost is highly effective, meeting the anticipated efficacy with a complete abortion rate of >95%. We have concluded from the data that gestation and parity are strong predictors for clinicians to anticipate the probability of a successful medical termination of pregnancy.

Adjuvant therapy with 5-fluorouracil for breast cancer of likely poor prognosis: 15-year results of a randomized trial.

In a trial conducted in southeast Scotland between April 1974 and December 1979, 332 women with invasive breast cancer of Stage I and II with histological evidence of node involvement, or who had operable or inoperable Stage III disease, were randomized, after primary local therapy (mastectomy, node biopsy and radiotherapy for all except the inoperable disease patients who underwent radiotherapy alone) to receive 12 4-weekly intravenous injections of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), 700 mg/m2 or no systemic therapy. After a median follow-up of 15 years from randomization, no difference is shown between the two groups in terms of distant relapse (hazard ratio (HR) = 1.02; 95% CI 0.78-1.32), event free survival (HR = 1.23; 95% CI 0.97-1.56), or total survival (HR = 1.19; 95% CI 0.93-1.52). Locoregional relapse is significantly reduced by 5-FU administration (HR = 1.88; 95% CI 1.20-2.96). The results are similar for the trial as a whole or when mastectomy patients are considered alone. Toxicity was minimal with marrow suppression in only 19 of 147 patients receiving more than one injection; only five patients discontinued therapy due to nausea and vomiting. However, retrosternal pain occurred in 16 patients, nine of whom had their treatment curtailed as a result. Seventy-seven per cent of patients have died, the majority from breast cancer. Only 1.2% of deaths are considered attributable to cardiac causes of 5-FU is not associated with excess cardiac deaths in these patients.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Risk factors for variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in dental practice: a case-control study.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the risk of variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD) associated with dental treatment. DESIGN: Case-control study, investigation of links between cases. SETTING: National CJD surveillance, general dental practice and practice boards in Great Britain, 2008-2009. METHODS: Variant CJD cases were recruited from all those referred between May 1995 and August 2009 (n = 160); controls were recruited from the general population in 2003 using randomly selected geographic clusters and age-weighted sampling of individuals (n = 584). Risk factors were ascertained from dental records, with consent, using a structured questionnaire. RESULTS: Dental records were available for fewer cases (49%, 78 out of 160) than control subjects (78%, 457 out of 584). Variant CJD cases were no more or less likely than control subjects to have undergone dental treatment (p ≥0.05). Two cases had attended the same dental practice, but the type and timing of treatments did not provide strong evidence that this was linked to the route of transmission. CONCLUSION: There is no evidence of a vCJD risk associated with dental treatment, but because dental information is limited we cannot exclude this possibility. Improved methods for dental record keeping are recommended to aid future investigations of associations between infectious diseases and dental treatment.

Dental treatment and risk of variant CJD--a case control study.

OBJECTIVE: Knowledge of risk factors for variant CJD (vCJD) remains limited, but transmission of prion proteins via re-useable medical devices, including dental instruments, or enhanced susceptibility following trauma to the oral cavity is a concern. This study aimed to identify whether previous dental treatment is a risk factor for development of vCJD. DESIGN: Case control study. METHODS: Risk factor questionnaires completed by interview with relatives of 130 vCJD patients and with relatives of 66 community and 53 hospital controls were examined by a dental surgeon. Responses regarding dental treatments were analysed. RESULTS: We did not find a statistically significant excess of risk of vCJD associated with dental treatments with the exception of extractions in an unmatched analysis of vCJD cases with community controls (p = 0.02). However, this result may be explained by multiple testing. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first published study to date to examine potential links between vCJD and dental treatment. There was no convincing evidence found of an increased risk of variant CJD associated with reported dental treatment. However, the power of the study is restricted by the number of vCJD cases to date and does not preclude the possibility that some cases have resulted from secondary transmission via dental procedures. Due to the limitations of the data available, more detailed analyses of dental records are required to fully exclude the possibility of transmission via dental treatment.

Raised CSF phospho-tau concentrations in variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease: diagnostic and pathological implications.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether phosphorylated tau protein (tau-pT181) is increased in variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD) and if the tau-pT181/tau protein ratio is useful for distinguishing between patients with and without CJD. METHODS: CSF tau protein and tau-pT181 were measured in 50 patients with sporadic CJD (sCJD), 51 patients with vCJD, 46 sCJD controls, and 37 vCJD controls, using Innotest hTau and Innotest P-Thr181, Innogenetics. RESULTS: Concentrations of CSF tau protein were increased in sCJD (5120 v 367 pg/ml in controls, p < 0.001) and vCJD (952 v 106 pg/ml, p < 0.001); tau-pT181 was also raised in sCJD (61 v 35 pg/ml in controls, p = 0.002) and vCJD (114 v 33 pg/ml, p < 0.001). Median concentrations of tau-pT181 were higher in vCJD than in sCJD (p < 0.001). The tau-pT181/tau protein ratio was lower than in controls in both sCJD (12 v 128 (p < 0.001)) and vCJD (119 v 279 (p < 0.001)). Mean tau-pT181/tau protein ratio was 10-fold higher in vCJD than in sCJD. Raised CSF tau protein had the highest efficiency for distinguishing sCJD and vCJD from controls. CONCLUSIONS: CSF tau-pT181 concentrations are raised in vCJD and are higher than in sCJD. Measurement of CSF tau-pT181/tau protein ratio does not improve the diagnostic efficiency of CSF tau protein alone for either vCJD or sCJD. The higher concentration of CSF tau-pT181 found in vCJD suggests that unexplained pathogenic factors influence the phosphorylation of tau protein in vCJD patients.

The accuracy of meningioma grading: a 10-year retrospective audit.

Although descriptive classifications of meningioma subtypes are well established, there has been inconsistency in the categorization of meningiomas into benign, atypical and anaplastic groups. The aim of this study was to reassess the incidence of atypical (grade II) meningiomas over a 10-year period by applying the World Health Organization (WHO) 2000 classification system. A secondary aim was to determine if grade II and III tumours were becoming more common. Sections of 314 meningiomas resected between 1994 and 2003 were retrieved from the archives of the Western General Hospital's neuropathology unit in Edinburgh. They were reassessed and graded by using the WHO 2000 classification system. The reviewers were blind to the original classification and grading. There was a gradual increase in the numbers of meningiomas being resected annually over the 10-year period. On reclassification, 78% of the meningiomas were classified as grade I, 20.4% as grade II and 1.6% as grade III. With regard to grade II meningiomas classified by using the WHO 2000 classification system, 38.1% had originally been classified as grade I prior to 2000, whereas 13.6% had originally been classified as grade I after 2000. In most cases, reclassification was due to formal counts of mitotic figures. Atypical meningiomas are diagnosed more frequently under the current WHO classification system than they were under the previous classification systems. Although the current WHO (2000) classification is more prescriptive than its predecessors, interobserver variability is likely to remain because of the subjective nature of some of the criteria.

The Edinburgh randomized trial of axillary sampling or clearance after mastectomy.

Between January 1980 and October 1983, 417 patients were randomized for mastectomy followed by axillary node sampling or full axillary clearance. The aim of the study was to determine whether a standard 'four-node' axillary sample, followed by careful dissection of removed tissue, could accurately indicate the extent of local treatment required. Axillary radiotherapy was given only to patients with histological involvement of sampled nodes and not to any having axillary clearance. The incidence of involved nodes was similar for both groups, as were distant relapse and survival rates. Currently 62.6 percent are alive after clearance and 65.0 percent after sampling. A non-significant increase in the rate of locoregional relapse was observed for those treated by axillary node clearance, this being due mainly to increased relapse on the unirradiated chest wall (clearance 21 percent versus sampling 12 percent in patients with node-positive disease). There was only a minor difference in axillary relapse, favouring axillary clearance (3.0 versus 5.4 percent). In patients with operable breast cancer, mastectomy with axillary node sampling gives equal control to mastectomy with axillary node clearance but, as morbidity is greater, surgical clearance of the axilla is the preferred option.

Is apocrine differentiation in breast carcinoma of prognostic significance?

Apocrine differentiation in human breast cancers has been assessed using immunohistochemistry to detect zinc alpha 2 glycoprotein and the findings related to standard prognostic factors, disease free interval (DFI) and survival in 145 women with early breast cancer. Breast tumour samples from women with a minimum follow-up of 5 years were assessed. Routinely fixed and processed tissue was used throughout. Sixty-six (45%) tumours did not stain with the antibody. Fifty-two (36%) exhibited positive apocrine staining while for 27 (19%) only a few cells were reactive. The presence of apocrine differentiation was unrelated to lymph node status, menstrual status, tumour grade or size, oestrogen receptor (E2R) or progesterone receptor status. However, patients whose tumours exhibited apocrine staining had a shorter disease-free interval (DFI) (P = 0.03) and survival (P = 0.03). A Cox's multiple regression analysis of the data found that the presence of staining added significantly (P = 0.047) to the predictive value of node status (P = 0.0001), menstrual status (P = 0.0001), tumour size (P = 0.0026) and E2R status (P = 0.0014) for patient survival. The other seven prognostic factors tested did not reach significance and were rejected from the model. Apocrine differentiation in breast cancer appears to be an independent predictor of poor prognosis tumours.

Randomised controlled trial of conservation therapy for breast cancer: 6-year analysis of the Scottish trial. Scottish Cancer Trials Breast Group.

BACKGROUND: To determine whether, when primary breast cancer is treated by local excision supported by systemic therapy appropriate to the oestrogen receptor status (ER) of the tumour, local radiotherapy can be avoided. METHODS: We carried out a randomised controlled trial in 585 patients aged less than 70 years with primary breast cancers of 4 cm or less in size in four specialist units and seven other hospitals in Scotland. After local excision of the tumour (1 cm margin) and an axillary lymph-node clearance or sample, all patients received systemic therapy with oral tamoxifen 20 mg daily or six 3-weekly intravenous bolus injections of cyclophosphamide 600 mg, methotrexate 50 mg, and fluorouracil 600 mg per m2, depending upon the ER concentration in the primary tumour. Patients were then randomly allocated to postoperative radical radiotherapy (50 Gy to breast with boost to the tumour bed) or to no further local treatment. The median follow-up of living patients was 5.7 years. The primary analysis was by intention to treat but since some patients did not receive systemic therapy appropriate to their ER status, a subsidiary analysis was restricted to 464 patients in whom all details of the protocol had been observed. FINDINGS: In the primary analysis survival was equal in the radiotherapy and non-radiotherapy groups (hazard ratio [HR] 0.98, 95% CI 0.67-1.44). Event-free survival showed an advantage in the irradiated patients (HR 0.54, 95% CI 0.39-0.74), largely due to fewer loco-regional relapses (HR 0.20, 95% CI 0.12-0.33). The relapse rate in the ipsilateral breast was 24.5% in the non-irradiated group and 5.8% following breast irradiation. The subsidiary analysis confirmed these findings and indicated the advantage of radiotherapy irrespective of ER concentration. There was a non-significant trend towards fewer distant metastases in the irradiated group. INTERPRETATION: After local excision of a primary breast cancer, we conclude that radiotherapy to the residual breast tissue is advisable even when selective adjuvant systemic therapy is given.

Dose-finding study of oral desogestrel with testosterone pellets for suppression of the pituitary-testicular axis in normal men.

Prototype hormonal male contraceptive regimens generally achieve only incomplete suppression to azoospermia with potentially adverse metabolic effects. We have carried out a short-term dose-finding study to investigate the potential of an oral gestogen, desogestrel, with testosterone pellets. Normal men received a single dose of 300 mg testosterone with 75 microg, 150 microg or 300 microg desogestrel daily for 8 weeks (n = 10 per group). LH and FSH were rapidly suppressed, with little difference between groups. Testosterone concentrations fell slightly during treatment with evidence of a linear dosage effect. Plasma inhibin B showed minor changes, but in seminal plasma it was suppressed, becoming undetectable in all men in the 300 microg desogestrel group. There were no significant changes in lipoproteins, fibrinogen or sexual behaviour during treatment, and minor falls in haematocrit and haemoglobin concentration. Sperm concentration fell in a dose-dependent manner, with three men, one man and seven men in the three groups respectively achieving severe oligozoospermia (<3 x 10(6)/ml), and three men achieving azoospermia in the 300 microg group despite the short duration of the study. The combination of oral desogestrel with depot testosterone thus results in profound suppression of gonadotrophin secretion without adverse metabolic or behavioural effects. Desogestrel with a long-acting testosterone preparation is a promising approach to hormonal male contraception.

Would women trust their partners to use a male pill?

Despite a renewed interest in the development of hormonal contraceptives for men, many discussions about the potential acceptability of a 'male pill' end by speculating whether women would trust their partners to use the method reliably. To determine the views of women, we undertook a survey of 1894 women attending family planning clinics in Scotland (450), China (900) and South Africa (544). In all centres over 65% of women thought that the responsibility for contraception falls too much on women. More than 90% in South Africa and Scotland thought that a 'male pill' was a good idea, with Chinese women (71% in Hong Kong and 87% in Shanghai) only slightly less positive. Only 13% of the total sample did not think that hormonal male contraception was a good idea and only 36 women (2% of the total) said that they would not trust their partner to use it. 78% of Scottish women, 71% of Shanghai women, and 78% of white women and 40% of black and coloured women in Cape Town thought that they would use the method. This survey should dispel the myth that women would not trust their partners to use a 'male pill' reliably and illustrates the potential market for the method.

Randomised comparison of 5 years of adjuvant tamoxifen with continuous therapy for operable breast cancer. The Scottish Cancer Trials Breast Group.

In 1985 a second randomisation was initiated for women in the treatment arm of the Scottish Tamoxifen Trial either to stop tamoxifen at 5 years or to continue indefinitely. A preliminary analysis of outcome in 342 patients at a median follow-up of 6 years suggests that a worthwhile gain in disease control from continuing adjuvant tamoxifen beyond 5 years is unlikely. [Hazard ratio for events (relapse or death without relapse) is 1.27, 95% CI = 0.87 - 1.85.] There is a suggestion that therapy for longer than 5 years may increase the risk of endometrial carcinoma (P = 0.064).

Potential impact of hormonal male contraception: cross-cultural implications for development of novel preparations.

The prospect of a hormonal male contraceptive is no longer distant. Data on the potential impact of this improvement in contraceptive provision, however, is limited, particularly between different cultures. We have therefore carried out a multi-centre study to assess men's attitudes to proposed novel hormonal methods. Questionnaire-based structured interviews were administered to men in Edinburgh, Cape Town, Shanghai and Hong Kong. Approximately 450 men were interviewed in Edinburgh, Shanghai and Hong Kong, and a slightly larger group (n = 493) in Cape Town to give samples (n > 150) of black, coloured and white men. Knowledge of existing male and female methods of contraception was high in all centres and groups. The majority of men welcomed a new hormonal method of contraception, 44-83% stating that they would use a male contraceptive pill. Overall, a pill was more acceptable than an injectable form (most popularly given at 3-6 month intervals); long-acting implants were least so except in Shanghai. Familiarity with comparable female methods appeared to influence acceptability, for both oral and injectable methods. Hong Kong was the only centre where a male method (condom) was currently the most commonly used; men there appeared to rate the convenience of condoms highly while being least likely to think that they provided effective protection against pregnancy compared to other centres, and were least enthusiastic about novel male methods. The acceptability of potential male hormonal methods of contraception was high in some groups but showed wide variability, determining factors including cultural background and current contraceptive usage. These results suggest that the emerging emphasis that men should have greater involvement in family planning will be substantiated when appropriate contraceptive methods become available.

Geographical distribution of variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in Great Britain, 1994-2000.

BACKGROUND: Geographical variation in the distribution of variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD) might indicate the transmission route of the infectious agent to man. We investigated whether regional incidences of vCJD were correlated with regional dietary data. METHODS: The National CJD Surveillance Unit prospectively identified 84 people with vCJD up to Nov 10, 2000, in Great Britain. Their lifetime residential histories were obtained by interviews with a close relative. Cumulative incidences of vCJD by standard region were calculated. Grid references for places of residence in 1991 were identified and evidence of geographical clusters were sought. Data on diet in the 1980s were analysed for regional correlations with vCJD incidence. The socioeconomic status of the places of residence of people with vCJD was compared with that of the general population. FINDINGS: vCJD incidence was higher in the north of Great Britain than the south. The rate ratio (north vs south) was 1.94 (95% CI 1.27-2.98). The mean Carstairs' deprivation score for areas of residence of people with vCJD was -0.09 (-0.73 to 0.55), which is close to the national average of zero. Regional rates of vCJD were correlated with consumption of other meat or meat products as classified and recorded by the Household Food Consumption and Expenditure Survey (r=0.72), but not with data from the Dietary and Nutritional Survey of British Adults. Five people with vCJD in Leicestershire formed a cluster (p=0.004). INTERPRETATION: Regional differences in vCJD incidence are unlikely to be due to ascertainment bias. We had difficulty determining whether regional variations in diet might cause these differences, since the results of dietary analyses were inconsistent.