No sex differences in evoked contractile properties after fatiguing isometric and isotonic exercise for the plantar flexors.

OBJECTIVES: Females tend to fatigue less than males after isometric exercise, but less is clear for isotonic exercise. Further, there have been relatively few sex comparisons for fatigability of the plantar flexors (PFs). We sought to investigate potential sex differences in contractile properties after a sustained maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) and isotonic contractions. METHODS: Twenty-seven physically active males (n=14; 22±2 yrs) and females (n=13; 21±2 yrs) randomly performed a 2 min MVIC and 120 concentric isotonic (30% MVIC) contractions for the PFs on separate visits. Before and after each fatiguing task, muscle activation was obtained from brief MVICs, which was followed (~2 sec) by tibial nerve stimulation at rest. Contractile properties including peak twitch, absolute and normalized time to peak twitch, and half relaxation time were calculated. RESULTS: No sex differences existed for fatigue-induced changes in muscle activation (p=0.09-0.41; d=0.33-0.69) or contractile properties (p=0.19-0.96; d=0.06-0.94). CONCLUSIONS: Peripheral fatigue, as indicated by contractile parameters, did not differ between sexes after isometric or isotonic exercise. The PFs similar fiber type proportions between sexes or greater fiber type heterogeneity may explain why sex differences in fatigability, though common in other muscle groups (e.g., knee extensors), were not expressed in this muscle group.

Cross-education: effects of age on rapid and maximal voluntary contractile characteristics in males.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of age on the cross-education of rapid and maximal contractile properties for the knee extensors. METHODS: Young (n = 10; age = 21.1 ± 1.7 years) and older (n = 10; age = 65.3 ± 8.3 years) males performed unilateral isokinetic resistance training (RT) of the knee extensors for 4 weeks. Maximal voluntary isokinetic (45° s-1 and 300° s-1) and isometric testing was conducted for the trained and untrained leg before and after RT. Peak torque (PT) and acceleration were obtained from isokinetic testing as well as torque at 30 ms (TQ30) and 100 ms (TQ100) from the 45° s-1 contraction. PT and rate of torque development were recorded from the isometric contractions. RESULTS: Independent of age, isometric PT (10.1%; p = 0.006) as well as PT and acceleration at 300° s-1 (6.7%; p = 0.008 and 4.0%; p = 0.016, respectively) increased in the untrained leg. At 45° s-1, acceleration was increased (3.6%; p = 0.021), but PT remained unchanged (p = 0.227). TQ100 increased similarly between groups (4.5%; p = 0.014), but TQ30 increased only in the older group (9.5%; p = 0.022). CONCLUSIONS: Cross-education of rapid and maximal contractile parameters can be achieved early during unilateral RT independent of age. These findings indicate the potential for particular unilateral RT protocols to be used for older adults in rehabilitative settings to offset disuse-related reductions in contractile function, which are most dramatic in this population.

Age-related reduction in peak power and increased postural displacement variability are related to enhanced vestibular-evoked balance responses in females.

Adult aging is associated with reductions in muscle function and standing balance control. However, whether sensorimotor function adapts to maintain upright posture in the presence of age-related muscle weakness is unclear. The purpose was to determine whether vestibular control of balance is altered in older compared to younger females and whether vestibular-evoked balance responses are related to muscle power. Eight young (22.6 ± 1.8 years) and eight older (69.7 ± 6.7 years) females stood quietly on a force plate, while subjected to random, continuous electrical vestibular stimulation (EVS; 0-20 Hz, root mean square amplitude: 1.13 mA). Medial gastrocnemius (MG) and tibialis anterior (TA) surface electromyography (EMG) and force plate anterior-posterior (AP) forces were sampled and associated with the EVS signal in the frequency and time domains. Knee extensor function was evaluated using a Biodex multi-joint dynamometer. The weaker, less powerful older females exhibited a 99 and 42% greater medium-latency peak amplitude for the TA and AP force (p < 0.05), respectively, but no other differences were detected for short- and medium-latency peak amplitudes. The TA (<10 Hz) and MG (<4 Hz) EVS-EMG coherence and EVS-AP force coherence (<2 Hz) was greater in older females than young. A strong correlation was detected for AP force medium-latency peak amplitude with center of pressure displacement variability (r = 0.75; p < 0.05) and TA medium-latency peak amplitude (r = 0.86; p < 0.05). Power was negatively correlated with AP force medium-latency peak amplitude (r = -0.47; p < 0.05). Taken together, an increased vestibular control of balance may compensate for an age-related reduction in power and accompanies greater postural instability in older females than young.

Isometric versus isotonic contractions: Sex differences in the fatigability and recovery of isometric strength and high-velocity contractile parameters.

The purpose of this study was to investigate potential sex differences in the fatigue- and recovery-induced responses of isometric strength and power, as well as select dynamic contractile parameters after isometric and isotonic plantar flexor (PF) contractions. Healthy males (n = 12; age = 21.8 ± 2.2 years) and females (n = 14; age = 21.4 ± 2.5 years) performed a 2-min maximal voluntary isometric contraction and 120 concentric isotonic (30% peak isometric torque) contractions of the PFs on separate visits. Isometric strength, isotonic power, as well as torque- and velocity-related parameters were recorded before, immediately after, and throughout 10 min of recovery. Rate of EMG rise (RER) for the medial gastrocnemius (MG) and soleus was also obtained. All measures responded similarly between sexes after both fatiguing modalities (p > 0.05), except RER of the MG which, in males demonstrated both, a greater decrease during isotonic contractions (p = 0.038, ηp2  = 0.174) and more rapid recovery after isometric exercise (p = 0.043, ηp2  = 0.166). Although not significant, a nearly large effect size was demonstrated for the fatigue-induced decrease in isometric strength (p = 0.061; d = 0.77) due to relative decreases tending to be greater in males (-29% vs. -17%). Regardless of fatiguing modality, sex differences were minimal for fatigue and recovery-related responses in muscle function for the PFs, although the difference for RER may indicate a unique origin of fatigue. Further support for the disassociation between the response in isometric strength and power after fatiguing exercise was also demonstrated.

Rate of Force Development as a Predictor of Mobility in Community-dwelling Older Adults.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Rate of force development (RFD) is influential, and possibly more influential than other muscular performance parameters, for mobility in older adults. However, only a few studies have investigated this matter, and this has not been examined for the plantar flexors (PFs). The purpose of this study was to examine the contribution of PF RFD and other common tests of muscular performance to Up-and-Go (UG) performance and walking speed (WS) in older adults. METHODS: Twenty-six (19 females) healthy, community-dwelling older adults (73.7 ± 4.9 years) were recruited from a senior citizen center for this observational study. Handgrip strength, UG performance, as well as preferred and maximal WS were obtained. Time taken to complete 5-chair rises and the number of chair rises completed in 30 seconds were recorded. Rate of force development of the PFs was obtained during a rapid, bilateral calf raise performed on a force plate. Hierarchical multiple linear regression was used to identify significant predictors, after adjusting for physical activity level and body mass index, of mobility (ie, UG, preferred and maximal WS). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: No muscular performance variables correlated with preferred WS. Rate of force development (adjusted R2 = 0.356; P = .008) and handgrip strength (adjusted R2 = 0.293; P = .026) were the only predictors of maximal WS and accounted for a 21.7% and 16.1% change in R2, respectively, after accounting for physical activity level and body mass index. Rate of force development was the only predictor of UG performance (adjusted R2 = 0.212; P = .006) and accounted for a 29.2% change in R2 after adjustment variables were applied. CONCLUSIONS: Compared to common assessments of muscular performance, such as handgrip strength and chair rise performance, PF RFD was a greater predictor of mobility in older adults. These findings, in conjunction with recent reports, indicate that the assessment of RFD likely complements strength testing, thereby enabling a more robust assessment of functional decline in older adults.

Microbiopsy Sampling for Examining Age-Related Differences in Skeletal Muscle Fiber Morphology and Composition.

Introduction: The increasingly popular microbiopsy is an appealing alternative to the more invasive Bergström biopsy given the challenges associated with harvesting skeletal muscle in older populations. Parameters of muscle fiber morphology and composition derived from the microbiopsy have not been compared between young and older adults. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine muscle fiber morphology and composition in young (YM) and older (OM) males using the microbiopsy sampling technique. A secondary aim was to determine if specific strength is associated with serum levels of C-terminal agrin fragment [CAF; an indicator of neuromuscular junction (NMJ) degradation]. Methods: Thirty healthy, YM (n = 15, age = 20.7 ± 2.2 years) and OM (n = 15, age = 71.6 ± 3.9 years) underwent ultrasound imaging to determine whole-muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) of the vastus lateralis and rectus femoris as well as isometric and isokinetic (60°â‹…s-1 and 180°â‹…s-1) peak torque testing of the knee extensors. Microbiopsy samples of the vastus lateralis were collected from 13 YM and 11 OM, and immunofluorescence was used to calculate CSA and proportion of type I and type II fibers. Results: Peak torque was lower in OM at all velocities (p ≤ 0.001; d = 1.39-1.86) but only lower at 180°â‹…s-1 (p = 0.003; d = 1.23) when normalized to whole-muscle CSA. Whole-muscle CSA was smaller in OM (p = 0.001; d = 1.34), but atrophy was not present at the single fiber level (p > 0.05). Per individual, ∼900 fibers were analyzed, and type I fiber CSA was larger (p = 0.05; d = 0.94) in OM which resulted in a smaller type II/I fiber CSA ratio (p = 0.015; d = 0.95). CAF levels were not sensitive to age (p = 0.159; d = 0.53) nor associated with specific strength or whole-muscle CSA in OM. Conclusion: The microbiopsy appears to be a viable alternative to the Bergström biopsy for histological analyses of skeletal muscle in older adults. NMJ integrity was not influential for age-related differences in specific strength in our healthy, non-sarcopenic older sample.

Sit-to-Stand Kinetics and Correlates of Performance in Young and Older Males.

PURPOSE: To compare sit-to-stand (STS) kinetics in young (YM) and older (OM) males and determine correlates of STS performance. METHODS: YM (n = 15, age = 20.7 ±â€¯2.2 yrs) and OM (n = 15, age = 71.6 ±â€¯3.9 yrs) performed a single STS task as quickly as possible on a force plate and the vertical ground reaction force (VGRF) signal was analyzed. Peak VGRF, as well as peak (100 ms rolling average), early (minimum VGRF to 50% peak VGRF), late (50% peak VGRF to peak VGRF), and overall (minimum VGRF to peak VGRF) rate of force development (RFD) were calculated. Power (absolute and relative) and velocity parameters as well as rate of electromyography rise (RER) were also obtained. RESULTS: STS time, average power, early RFD, and lower limb lean mass were similar between groups (p > 0.05). All other power, velocity, RFD, and RER measures were lower in OM (p < 0.05; d = 0.41-2.19). Peak VGRF and all RFD measures, except late RFD, were strongly correlated with STS performance in OM, while peak VGRF and peak RFD were only moderately correlated with performance in YM. CONCLUSIONS: Most kinetic variables, except absolute average power, were diminished in OM, and there was a preferential decrease in late RFD compared to early RFD. Peak VGRF and RFD exhibited stronger correlations with STS time and power in OM compared to YM, and early RFD appears to be more influential for STS performance than late RFD. These findings may be useful for practitioners/clinicians involved in designing interventions aimed at optimizing STS performance in older adults.

Early and late rapid torque characteristics and select physiological correlates in middle-aged and older males.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to compare early and late rapid torque parameters of the plantar flexors (PFs) in middle-aged (MM) and older (OM) males, and determine the effect of normalization to peak torque (PT) and muscle cross-sectional area (CSA). METHODS: Twenty-nine healthy, MM (n = 14; 45 ± 2 yrs) and OM (n = 15; 65 ± 3 yrs) performed rapid, maximal isometric contractions of the PFs. PT, as well as rate of torque development and impulse during the early (0-50 ms; RTD0-50, IMP0-50) and late (100-200 ms; RTD100-200, IMP100-200) contraction phases were calculated. Torque at 50 (TQ50), 100 (TQ100), and 200 (TQ200) ms was also obtained. CSA and echo-intensity (EI) of the gastrocnemii were acquired via ultrasonography. Torque variables were normalized to PT and CSA. Rate of EMG rise (RER) for the medial gastrocnemius was calculated at 30, 50 and 75 ms. RESULTS: TQ100 (MM = 69.71 ± 16.85 vs. OM = 55.99 ± 18.54 Nm; p = 0.046), TQ200 (MM = 114.76 ± 26.79 vs. OM = 91.56 ± 28.10 Nm; p = 0.031), and IMP100-200 (MM = 4.79 ± 1.11 vs. OM = 3.83 ± 1.17 Nm·s; p = 0.032) were lower in OM. PT, TQ50, RTD0-50, IMP0-50, RTD100-200, RER, CSA, and EI were similar between groups (p > 0.05). No differences were found for normalized torque variables (p > 0.05). EI was moderately associated with normalized torque parameters only (r = -0.38 --0.45). RER, at 75 ms, was moderately correlated with early, absolute torque measures and rapid torque variables made relative to PT and CSA (r = 0.41 --0.64). CONCLUSION: Late rapid torque parameters of the PFs were preferentially impaired in OM compared to MM, and PT as well as CSA appeared to mediate this result.

Neuromuscular function of the plantar flexors and predictors of peak power in middle-aged and older males.

Little evidence exists regarding the contribution of torque and velocity to the age-related decrease in peak power (PP) for the plantar flexors (PFs). A comprehensive assessment of PF neuromuscular function is necessary to elucidate age-related changes, especially between middle-aged and older adults, in order to identify early, age-related decrements. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine neuromuscular function of the PFs in middle-aged and older males, and identify predictors of PP. Twenty-eight healthy, middle-aged (n = 13; 45.1 ±â€¯2.7 yrs) and older (n = 15; 65.3 ±â€¯3.2 yrs) males performed concentric isotonic PF contractions ranging in intensity from 20% to 70% isometric strength using a dynamometer. PP in addition to velocity and torque at the moment in time PP occurred, as well as the rate of velocity, torque (RTD), and power (RPD) development were recorded. The rate of electromyography rise (RER) was derived from the linear slope of the normalized electromyography signal. Isometric and concentric dynamic strength were assessed, as well as cross-sectional area and muscle quality (i.e., echo intensity) of the PFs via panoramic ultrasonography. The relationship between serum c-terminal agrin levels and select variables was examined to explore the potential role of neuromuscular junction deterioration. Appendicular lean mass and physical activity level were similar between groups (p > 0.05), and only PP (p = 0.046; d = 0.79), RPD (p = 0.026; d = 0.90), RTD (p = 0.022; d = 0.91), and RER (p = 0.010; d = 1.04) were lower in older males. When groups were collapsed, RTD was the only significant predictor of PP, while c-terminal agrin levels were not associated with any variables. Our findings indicate that PP and time-dependent parameters of muscle activation and contractile function of the PFs are dramatically diminished in older adults compared to middle-aged adults. PP is produced at the same velocity and relative intensity in middle-aged and older males, and RTD is most influential for PP. The inability of the PFs to be rapidly activated appeared to be influential for the age-related impairment in PP and time-dependent contractile parameters.