Food choices for weight loss: what dietary strategies would people use?

Previous observational research showed that one of the most common strategies used to lose weight is to avoid or restrict the consumption of specific food items. However, the question of how people behave and implement strategies in actual decision-making situations involving food choices for weight loss purposes remains inconclusive. This experimental study using a food buffet aimed to examine people's different dietary strategies and motives for selecting foods for an entire day for weight loss purposes compared with a normal-day (ND) food selection. A total of 111 participants (55 % women) had to choose foods for both a ND and a weight loss day (WLD) (within-study design). Kilocalories and nutrients were calculated based on the weights of the foods selected, and food choice motives were assessed using a questionnaire. The results showed that for weight loss purposes, the participants selected more vegetables (both sexes) and unsweetened beverages (only men) while reducing their choices of high-fat and high-energy products (both sexes). Participants' food choices in both conditions (ND and WLD) differed from the official nutrition recommendations. They chose less carbohydrates and fibres and more fat and sugar than recommended. Health, kilocalories and nutrient content (carbohydrates, sugar, fat and protein) were more important food choice motives for weight loss purposes than for a ND food selection, while taste became less important. In conclusion, the participants appeared to be well capable of implementing several appropriate dietary strategies. Further research is needed to explore strategies to help them maintain these dietary changes over the long term.

Consideration of pathways for immunotoxicity of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS).

BACKGROUND: Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are of public health concern, because of their ubiquitous and extremely persistent occurrence, and depending on their structure, their bio-accumulative, mobile and toxic properties. Human health effects associated with exposure to PFAS include adverse effects on the immune system. In 2020, EFSA (the European Food Safety Authority) defined adverse effects on the immune system as the most critical effect for human health risk assessment, based on reduced antibody responses to childhood vaccines and similar effects observed in experimental animal studies. Likewise, the U.S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) considers PFAS-induced immunotoxicity, especially in children, as the critical effect for risk assessment. However, the mechanisms by which antibody concentrations are impacted are not completely understood. Furthermore, other targets of the immune system functions have been reported in the literature. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this review is to explore PFAS-associated immune-related effects. This includes, relevant mechanisms that may underlie the observed effects on the immune system, immunosuppression as well as immunoenhancement, such as i) modulation of cell signalling and nuclear receptors, such as NF-κB and PPARs; ii) alteration of calcium signalling and homoeostasis in immune cells; iii) modulation of immune cell populations; iv) oxidative stress and v) impact on fatty acid metabolism & secondary effects on the immune system. METHODS: A literature research was conducted using three databases (Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus), which were searched in July 2021 for relevant studies published in the time frame from 2018 to 2021. In total, 487 publications were identified as potentially eligible and following expert-based judgement, articles relevant for mechanisms of PFAS induced immunotoxicity are discussed. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, we show that there is substantial evidence from both in vitro and in vivo experimental as well as epidemiological studies, supporting that various PFAS, not only PFOA and PFOS, affect multiple aspects of the immune system. Timing of exposure is critical, because the developing immune system is especially vulnerable to toxic insults, resulting in a higher risk of particularly adverse immune effects but also other organs later in life.

Gradual behaviour change towards meat reduction: Development and validation of a novel decisional balance scale.

Meat reduction is gaining attention among consumers, marketers, policymakers and scientists. Yet little is known about decision-making processes and behaviour change towards meat reduction. This paper explores the applicability of the decisional balance (DB) framework to the field of meat reduction. A novel DB scale to measure the perceived importance of beliefs about meat reduction at different stages of behaviour change was developed and validated in two studies with German meat eaters. In Study 1 (N = 309), the item inventory was tested using an exploratory factor analysis and then validated in Study 2 (N = 809). The results yielded two higher-order DB factors (pros and cons), which were subdivided into five lower-order factors (perceived benefits of a plant-based diet, downsides of factory farming, health barriers, legitimation barriers and feasibility barriers). The pros and cons were summarised in a DB index. All DB factors and the DB index were tested for internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha ≥.70) and aspects of validity. The typical DB pattern of the pros and cons of behaviour change was confirmed: the cons outweighed the pros for consumers who did not intend to reduce meat consumption, while the pros outweighed the cons for consumers who intended to reduce meat consumption. The new DB scale for meat reduction has proven to be a suitable measure to gain insights into consumers' decision making and could be used to develop targeted meat reduction interventions.

Prenatal exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances and pregnancy outcome in Austria.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a large group of persistent industrial chemicals that can harm reproductive health. PFAS levels were analysed to determine the current sources of exposure and possible associations between prenatal PFAS exposure and adverse pregnancy outcome. Samples from 136 mother-newborn pairs recruited between 2017 and 2019 were analysed for the presence of 31 target PFAS in maternal serum, umbilical cord serum, and placental tissue by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to a tandem mass spectrometer. Questionnaires and medical records were used to survey sources of exposure and pregnancy outcome, including small for gestational age (SGA), fetal growth restriction (FGR), preeclampsia (PE), preterm birth, large for gestational age (LGA) and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). Data were analysed for individual PFAS and sum4PFAS (sum of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS), and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) serum levels) in logistic regression analyses and categorical regression analyses. Compared to data from a previous Viennese study in 2010-12, sum4PFAS levels were generally lower. Sum4PFAS serum levels of three women (2.2%) exceeded 6.9 µg/L, a level that corresponds to the recently established tolerable weekly intake (TWI) of EFSA for nursing mothers aged 35 years; in the 2010/2012 study it was 13.6%. The large contribution of unidentified extractable organofluorine (EOF) fractions to total PFAS exposure is a concern. Study site, mean maternal corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), use of facial lotion, and owning upholstered furniture were significantly influencing maternal exposure. While no effect of sum4PFAS on pregnancy outcome could be detected, we found highest placental PFDA levels in SGA births. PFHxS levels in umbilical cord and placenta were highest in preterm births. Further studies are needed to elucidate the relationship of prenatal PFAS exposure and pregnancy outcome, in particular to confirm whether and how placental PFDA levels may contribute to an increased risk for SGA.

Associations between hydration status, body composition, sociodemographic and lifestyle factors in the general population: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Whole-body hydration status is associated with several health outcomes, such as dehydration, edema and hypertension, but little is known about the nonclinical determinants. Therefore, we studied the associations of sex, age, body composition, nutrition, and physical activity on several body hydration measures. METHODS: We assessed sociodemographic variables, dietary habits, and physical activity by questionnaire and body composition by bioelectric impedance analysis (BIA). We compared determinants between the sexes and calculated associations between determinants and BIVA hydration measures by multivariable linear regressions. RESULTS: A total of 242 adults from the general population (age 18-94, 47% women) were included. Women were younger, smaller, lighter, and had a smaller BMI (kg/m2) than men (p < 0.05). Women had less muscle mass, less visceral fat mass and less extracellular and intracellular water than men (p < 0.001). Women showed less intracellular water per extracellular water than men, while men showed higher phase angle values than women (both p < 0.001). Men had a stronger association of hydration measures with physical activity than women. Both sexes showed a decrease in hydration measures with age. CONCLUSIONS: Sex, age, body composition, and physical activity influence body hydration. There seem to be differences in body water regulation between the sexes. Especially interesting are factors susceptible to preventive measures such as physical activity.

Extractable Organofluorine Analysis in Pooled Human Serum and Placental Tissue Samples from an Austrian Subpopulation-A Mass Balance Analysis Approach.

Embryos and fetuses are of major concern due to their high vulnerability. Previous studies demonstrated that human exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) may be underestimated because only a limited number of known PFAS can be measured. This investigation studied the total PFAS exposure by measuring the extractable organofluorine (EOF) in pooled maternal serum, placental tissue, and cord serum samples (total number of pooled samples: n = 45). The EOF was analyzed using combustion ion chromatography, and the concentrations of known PFAS were determined using ultraperformance liquid chromatography coupled with a tandem mass spectrometer. Using a mass balance analysis approach, the amount of unknown PFAS was estimated between the levels of known PFAS and EOF. The EOF levels ranged from 2.85 to 7.17 ng F/mL (21 PFAS were quantified) in the maternal serum, from 1.02 to 1.85 ng F/g (23 PFAS were quantified) in the placental tissue, and from 1.2 to 2.10 ng F/mL (18 PFAS were quantified) in the cord serum. An average of 24, 51, and 9% of EOF is unidentified in the maternal serum, placental tissue, and cord serum, respectively. The results show that the levels of unidentified EOF are higher in the placental tissue, suggesting accumulation or potential transformation of precursors in the placenta.

Comparison of extraction methods for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in human serum and placenta samples-insights into extractable organic fluorine (EOF).

Since the detection of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in humans and different environmental media in the last two decades, this substance group has attracted a lot of attention as well as increasing concerns. The fluorine mass balance approach, by comparing the levels of targeted PFAS after conversion to fluorine equivalents with those of extractable organic fluorine (EOF), showed the presence of unidentified organofluorine in different environmental samples. Out of the thousands of PFAS in existence, only a very small fraction is included in routine analysis. In recent years, liquid chromatography coupled with tandem-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) has demonstrated the ability to analytically cover a wide spectrum of PFAS. In contrast, conventional extraction methods developed 10 to 15 years ago were only evaluated for a limited number of PFAS. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of three different extraction methods, adapted from the literatures without further optimization (ion-pair liquid-liquid extraction, solid-phase extraction (SPE), using hydrophilic-lipophilic (HLB) or weak anion exchange (WAX) sorbents), for human biomonitoring of 61 PFAS in serum and placental tissue samples. In addition, levels of EOF were compared among these extraction methods via spiked samples. Results showed that performance, in terms of recovery, differed between the extraction methods for different PFAS; different extraction methods resulted in different EOF concentrations indicating that the choice of extraction method is important for target PFAS and EOF analysis. Results of maternal serum samples, analyzed in two different laboratories using two different extraction methods, showed an accordance of 107.6% (± 21.3); the detected perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in maternal and cord serum samples were in the range of 0.076 to 2.9 ng/mL.Graphical abstract.

Measuring consumers' knowledge of the environmental impact of foods.

Our daily food choices have a huge impact on the environment. However, most consumers are not aware of the environmental impact of food production and consumption. Since there is no valid and reliable measure of knowledge regarding food's environmental impact, a 16-item multiple-choice knowledge questionnaire was developed. An example item reads: "Which of the following meals is the most climate friendly?" - Organic beef burger, Organic salmon burger, Quinoa burger, Do not know. The knowledge questionnaire was tested in a Swiss and German consumer sample (total N = 1810) and meets standard psychometric criteria. It showed good internal consistency across the adult samples. Validity was supported by small to medium-sized positive correlations with constructs of environmental (e.g., environmental apathy) and food (e.g., perceived environmentally friendly food purchasing behavior) attitudes. By using a food buffet made of replica food items, it was shown that consumers with higher knowledge scores are better able to compose lunch menus with a lower environmental footprint. The new scale will help to identify potential areas of misconceptions in people's understanding of the environmental friendliness of foods and in what respect a lack of knowledge poses a barrier to behavioral change. It also enables research into the efficacy of educational measures such as campaigns and decision aids for sustainable food consumption.

A longitudinal study examining the influence of diet-related compensatory behavior on healthy weight management.

The aim of the present study was to examine the role of diet-related compensatory behavior in healthy weight management regarding diet quality, physical activity, and body mass index (BMI) over time in a non-clinical general population. Data were based on the first and third waves of the Swiss Food Panel 2.0 survey, which included questions about food consumption frequencies and constructs measuring weight management strategies. Data were examined using principal component analysis and correlation analyses to examine the psychometric properties of the adapted items, and multiple linear regression analyses for longitudinal examination. The adapted items measuring diet-related compensatory behavior were shown to be valid and reliable. On a longitudinal level, the results show that diet-related compensatory behavior was a significant predictor for change in physical activity and diet quality. With a higher tendency for diet-related compensatory behavior, physical activity and diet quality increased after two years. No effect was found for changes in BMI over time. Individuals from a non-clinical population showing diet-related compensatory behavior more frequently seem to have an improved diet quality and an increase in physical activity over time. Therefore, when applied in healthy doses, diet-related compensatory behavior may contribute to the maintenance of a balanced and healthy body weight, but it is not a successful strategy for weight loss over time.

Perceived naturalness, disgust, trust and food neophobia as predictors of cultured meat acceptance in ten countries.

Cultured meat is a novel food technology that promises to produce meat in a more environmentally friendly and animal-friendly way. We conducted an internet survey in ten countries (Australia, China, England, France, Germany, Mexico, South Africa, Spain, Sweden and the US) with a total sample of 6128 participants. Results suggest that there are large cultural differences regarding the acceptance of cultured meat. French consumers were significantly less accepting of the idea than consumers in all other countries. Perceived naturalness of and disgust evoked by cultured meat were important factors in the acceptance of this novel food technology in all countries. Trust in the food industry, food neophobia and food disgust sensitivity indirectly and directly influenced the acceptance of cultured meat in almost all countries. In order to increase the acceptance of cultured meat, the similarity of cultured meat to traditional meat needs to be emphasized rather than the rather technical production process, which may evoke associations of unnaturalness and disgust.

Food disgust sensitivity influences the perception of food hazards: Results from longitudinal and cross-cultural studies.

Two survey studies, one conducted in Switzerland and the other in nine countries, suggest that food disgust sensitivity is a personality variable that influences the perception of food hazards. For a large Swiss sample (N = 2813), we found that participants having higher food disgust sensitivity perceived more risks compared with participants having lower disgust sensitivity. A longitudinal analysis further suggests that changes in the participants' disgust sensitivity result in changes in the perception of food hazards. A second survey was conducted in Australia, China, England, France, Mexico, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, and the US (N = 5511). In all countries except China, significant correlations between food disgust sensitivity and risk perception were observed. The results suggest that food disgust sensitivity may be an important factor for the acceptance of novel or existing agri-food technologies.

Aldosterone Induces DNA Damage and Activation of Nrf2 Mainly in Tubuli of Mouse Kidneys.

Hypertensive patients have an increased risk of developing chronic kidney disease (CKD). Many of these patients have increased levels of the blood pressure regulating mineralocorticoid aldosterone. As a protection against aldosterone-induced damage, kidney cells can upregulate key regulators of the antioxidant defense, such as nuclear factor-erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2). In the present study aldosterone-induced kidney damage and Nrf2 activation in kidney cells of mice treated with three different concentrations of aldosterone for 4 weeks was localized. Increased albumin and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) in urine revealed an impaired kidney function of the aldosterone-infused mice. Localization of aldosterone-induced oxidative damage (in the form of DNA lesions) in specific kidney cells showed an increase in proximal tubuli and to an even greater extend in distal tubuli. Phosphorylated Nrf2 was increased in distal tubule cells after aldosterone-infusion. Nrf2 activation in proximal tubuli or in glomeruli after aldosterone-treatment could not be observed. Nrf2 target genes and proteins analyzed, paradoxically, showed a downregulation in the whole kidney. Aldosterone-treated mice exhibited an increased kidney injury and DNA damage in distal and proximal tubuli. Nrf2 seemed only to be specifically activated in distal tubule cells, where we also detected the highest amount of oxidative damage.

Effects of the SGLT-2 Inhibitor Canagliflozin on Adenine-Induced Chronic Kidney Disease in Rats.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: SGLT-2 inhibitors have been shown to be nephroprotective in diabetes. Here, we examined if one of these drugs (canagliflozin) could also ameliorate non-diabetic chronic kidney disease (CKD). METHODS: CKD was induced in rats by feeding them adenine (0.25%w/w for 35 days) and canagliflozin (10 or 25 mg/kg, by gavage) was given with or without adenine. Several conventional and novel plasma and urine biomarkers and tissues morphology were used to investigate the canagliflozin effect on kidney structure and function. RESULTS: Rats fed adenine showed the typical features of CKD that included elevation of blood pressure, decreased food intake and growth, increased water intake and urine output, decrease in creatinine clearance, and increase in urinary albumin/creatinine ratio, liver-type fatty acid binding protein, N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminidase, and plasma urea, creatinine, uric acid, calcium, indoxyl sulfate and phosphorus concentrations. Adenine also increased concentrations of several biomarkers of inflammation such as neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor alpha, clusterin, cystatin C and interleukin-1ß, and decreased some oxidative biomarkers in kidney homogenate, such as superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione reductase, total antioxidant activity, and also urinary 8-isoprostane and urinary 8-hydroxy-2-deoxy guanosine. Adenine significantly increased the renal protein content of Nrf2, caused renal tubular necrosis and fibrosis. Given alone, canagliflozin at the two doses used did not significantly alter any of the parameters mentioned above. When canagliflozin was given concomitantly with adenine, it significantly and dose - dependently ameliorated all the measured adenine - induced actions. CONCLUSION: Canagliflozin ameliorated adenine - induced CKD in rats, through reduction of several inflammatory and oxidative stress parameters, and other indices such as uremic toxins, and by antagonizing the increase in the renal content of the transcription factor Nrf2. The drug caused no overt or significant untoward effects, and its trial in patients with CKD may be warranted.

Healthy choice label does not substantially improve consumers' ability to select healthier cereals: results of an online experiment.

The results of numerous studies suggest that front-of-package (FOP) labels enhance consumers' ability to assess the healthiness of food products. However, most of the studies lack ecological validity. We selected fourteen breakfast cereals stocked by a major Swiss retailer. The participants from an Internet panel (n 780), with a somewhat higher educational level than that of the Swiss population, were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: control (picture of the FOP presented), table (plus the nutrition table with information on the energy and the main nutrients per 100 g), label (plus the healthy choice label for the healthier product) and combined (plus both the nutrition table and the healthy choice label). The participants were asked to select the healthier cereals from all possible ninety-one pair comparisons. The nutrient profile score was used as a 'gold standard'. For the thirty-three cereal pairs, one of the cereals had a label and the other had none, the median accuracy was only marginally lower in the control condition (91 %) compared with the table (94 %), the label (94 %) and the combined conditions (97 %). Similar results were observed when the incorrect decisions were weighted by the difference in the nutrient profile scores of the two cereals (for all ninety-one product pairs). These findings suggest that a healthy choice label has a limited effect on helping consumers select healthier cereals. In the control condition, the median of the correct choices was about 78 %. Consumers' perception of the healthiness of foods could be improved.

Angiotensin II-induced hypertension increases the mutant frequency in rat kidney.

Epidemiological studies revealed an increased risk for kidney cancer in hypertensive patients. In many of these patients, the blood pressure regulating renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) is activated. A stimulated RAAS leads to oxidative stress and increases markers of DNA damage, both in vitro and in animal models of hypertension. However, the mutagenic potential of RAAS activation has not been investigated yet. To quantify hypertension-induced mutations, BigBlue®+/- rats, which carry a transgenic lacI gene for mutation analysis, were treated for 20 weeks with a mean dose of 400 µg angiotensin II/kg × day. Angiotensin II-treated animals showed significantly increased blood pressure and impaired kidney function. Urinary excretion of oxidized nucleobases was raised. Additionally, in the renal cortex, oxidative stress, oxidatively generated DNA lesions and DNA strandbreaks were significantly increased. Further, a significant elevation of the mutant frequency in kidney DNA was detected. Sequencing revealed the presence of GC → T:A transversions in the mutated lacI genes of the angiotensin II-treated animals as a result of unrepaired oxidatively modified DNA bases, while no such transversions were found in the mutated lacI genes from control animals. The results demonstrate that the oxidative stress and DNA damage previously observed in kidney cells in vitro and in vivo after angiotensin II treatment indeed is associated with the accumulation of mutations in rat kidneys, providing further evidence for a cancer-initiating potential of elevated angiotensin II concentrations.

Meat avoidance: motives, alternative proteins and diet quality in a sample of Swiss consumers.

OBJECTIVE: Diets lower in meat are considered both highly beneficial for human health and more environmentally friendly. The present study compared consumer groups with different self-declared diet styles regarding meat (vegetarians/vegans, pescatarians, low- and regular meat consumers) in terms of their motives, protein consumption, diet quality and weight status. DESIGN: Cross-sectional data from the Swiss Food Panel 2.0 (survey 2017). SETTING: Switzerland, Europe. PARTICIPANTS: Data of 4213 Swiss adults (47·4 % females) from a nationally representative sample living in the German- and French-speaking regions of Switzerland (mean age 55·4 years). RESULTS: For vegetarians, vegans and pescatarians, ethical concerns about animal welfare and environmental friendliness, as well as taste preferences are stronger reasons to avoid meat consumption. Female low-meat consumers are more likely to be motivated by weight regulation. Only 18 % of the sample and 26 % of self-declared low-meat consumers met the official dietary recommendations for meat intake. Concerns about animal welfare and taste preferences predicted lower meat intake, whereas perceived difficulty of practising a low-meat diet and weight-loss motives were associated with higher meat consumption in consumers who reported eating little or no meat. CONCLUSIONS: Our study demonstrates that there can be large discrepancies between consumers' self-perception and their actual meat consumption. This has to be taken into account when designing public health interventions. Addressing ethical concerns about animal welfare (e.g. through awareness campaigns), further improving the range of vegetarian options and increasing consumers' knowledge about the dietary recommendations may be ways to promote diets lower in meat.

Impact of sustainability perception on consumption of organic meat and meat substitutes.

Consumers' food selections have a large impact on the environment. In this study, we examined how consumers evaluated the environmental impact of various foods. Furthermore, we investigated whether the perceived environmental effect of foods, health consciousness, and food disgust sensitivity would be related to the consumption of meat substitutes and organic meat. We used data from the Swiss Food Panel 2.0 for our analyses (N = 5586 participants from the German- and French-speaking part of Switzerland). The participants mistakenly perceived the environmental impact of soy-based meat substitutes as similar to that of conventionally produced meat. The results suggested that consumers with low meat consumption, perceptions about the high environmental impact of meat, high health consciousness, low disgust sensitivity, and who were female, younger, and better educated were more likely to consume meat substitutes compared with people who had the opposite attributes. Perceived environmental impact of conventionally produced meat, health consciousness, being female, age, income, and education had a positive impact on consumption of organic meat. Disgust sensitivity had a negative effect. The relatively low negative correlation between meat and meat substitute consumption implies that the substitution effect may not be as large as hoped for in the transition to more sustainable food behavior. However, our results also indicate that increasing consumer knowledge about the environmental impact of foods may lead to more sustainable food consumption.

Intuitive eating and food intake in men and women: Results from the Swiss food panel study.

Although intuitive eating (IE) interventions have consistently shown benefits for psychological wellbeing and some have shown improvements in physical wellbeing, there is scarce information on the relationship between IE and food intake. Given the popularity of IE as an alternative to dieting, it's important to explore its relationship with food intake. The relationships between IE, Body Mass Index (BMI), diet quality, self-evaluation of dietary intake and physical activity were investigated. A randomly selected sample of adults from the German and French-speaking parts of Switzerland (N = 5,238, 51% men, 20-100 years, BMI 15-62 kg/m2) completed a self-administered questionnaire comprising measures of a diverse range of eating related variables. Intuitive Eating was assessed with the IES-2. Food intake was measured with a semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire. Pearson correlations between the IES-2 and variables of interest were calculated for men and women separately. Although total IES-2 scores showed moderate negative correlations with BMI in men and women, the four IES-2 subscales showed different relationships with food intake. In contrast to the other subscales, unconditional permission to eat moderately correlated with poorer diet quality scores, and consistently showed associations with a more negative self-evaluation of eating behavior. The other three IES-2 subscales showed a few small positive and negative correlations with food intake, including small positive associations of diet quality scores in women, but not men, with eating for physical rather than emotional reasons and reliance on hunger and satiety cues. Further studies are needed to determine the impact of IE interventions on food intake.

Cross-cultural validation of the short version of the Food Disgust Scale in ten countries.

The cross-cultural testing of scales represents an important step in the scale validation process. The present study evaluated whether the eight-item short version of the recently developed Food Disgust Scale (FDS-short) is a reliable and valid tool for measuring food disgust sensitivity in ten countries: Australia, China, England, France, Germany, Mexico, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, and the USA. In an online survey, the participants (N = 6128) answered items from the FDS-short and other scales related to (food) disgust sensitivity so as to test the construct and criterion validity of the FDS-short. Confirmatory factor analysis of the one-factor structure of the FDS-short revealed an adequate to good model fit in all the countries except for China. Multiple group analysis to test measurement invariance showed the FDS-short to be metrically invariant in all the tested countries (except for China) relative to Australia. With regard to the construct validity, significant positive correlations were observed in all the countries between the FDS-short and pathogen disgust sensitivity, sexual disgust sensitivity, moral disgust sensitivity, germ aversion, and food neophobia. Criterion validity of the FDS-short in all the tested countries was confirmed by the positive correlations between it and having a sensitive stomach, experiencing gastrointestinal complaints after eating animal-based foods (except for France and Germany), and the perceived infection risk of food-borne diseases in one's country. The direction of the correlations indicated that for each country, those with higher FDS-short scores also scored higher on all the tested constructs than those with lower FDS-short scores. Taken together, the present results indicate that the FDS-short is a reliable and valid tool for assessing food disgust sensitivity across countries.