State of science: the future of work - ergonomics and human factors contributions to the field.

This article is concerned with scholarly ergonomics and human factors (E/HF) contributions to date to the field of research inquiry known as the 'future of work'. The review considers E/HF perspectives on how the nature of work is changing and what this means for the practice of E/HF and for human performance and wellbeing at work. This field of research has attracted much attention from scholars from various disciplines as flexible working arrangements and casualised employment, in particular, have come under the microscope during the COVID-19 pandemic. The article begins by setting out the future of work field, focussing on the mega trends and future of work forces that are most relevant to the discipline. Next, E/HF contributions to this field are identified and discussed. Surprisingly, given the E/HF tradition as a system discipline fundamentally concerned with the study of human work, and as a contributor to transdisciplinary research related to the design of work systems, a search of the scholarly literature found few contributions outside of the automation systems field that addressed the future of work and E/HF directly. A research agenda is presented to address gaps in current knowledge in a number of key future of work domains. Practitioner's Summary: We reflect on E/HF contributions to the 'future of work' field and how the practice of E/HF needs to consider the changing nature of work. We outline future of work concerns and suggest research areas for further E/HF attention towards the design of decent and sustainable work for all. Abbreviations: E/HF: ergonomics and human factors; ILO: International Labour Organisation; COVID-19.

Interventions to prevent injuries in construction workers.

BACKGROUND: Construction workers are frequently exposed to various types of injury-inducing hazards. There are a number of injury prevention interventions, yet their effectiveness is uncertain. OBJECTIVES: To assess the effects of interventions for preventing injuries in construction workers. SEARCH METHODS: We searched the Cochrane Injuries Group's specialised register, CENTRAL (issue 3), MEDLINE, Embase and PsycINFO up to April 2017. The searches were not restricted by language or publication status. We also handsearched the reference lists of relevant papers and reviews. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomised controlled trials, controlled before-after (CBA) studies and interrupted time-series (ITS) of all types of interventions for preventing fatal and non-fatal injuries among workers at construction sites. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two review authors independently selected studies, extracted data and assessed their risk of bias. For ITS studies, we re-analysed the studies and used an initial effect, measured as the change in injury rate in the year after the intervention, as well as a sustained effect, measured as the change in time trend before and after the intervention. MAIN RESULTS: Seventeen studies (14 ITS and 3 CBA studies) met the inclusion criteria in this updated version of the review. The ITS studies evaluated the effects of: introducing or changing regulations that laid down safety and health requirements for the construction sites (nine studies), a safety campaign (two studies), a drug-free workplace programme (one study), a training programme (one study), and safety inspections (one study) on fatal and non-fatal occupational injuries. One CBA study evaluated the introduction of occupational health services such as risk assessment and health surveillance, one evaluated a training programme and one evaluated the effect of a subsidy for upgrading to safer scaffoldings. The overall risk of bias of most of the included studies was high, as it was uncertain for the ITS studies whether the intervention was independent from other changes and thus could be regarded as the main reason of change in the outcome. Therefore, we rated the quality of the evidence as very low for all comparisons.Compulsory interventionsRegulatory interventions at national or branch level may or may not have an initial effect (effect size (ES) of -0.33; 95% confidence interval (CI) -2.08 to 1.41) and may or may not have a sustained effect (ES -0.03; 95% CI -0.30 to 0.24) on fatal and non-fatal injuries (9 ITS studies) due to highly inconsistent results (I² = 98%). Inspections may or may not have an effect on non-fatal injuries (ES 0.07; 95% CI -2.83 to 2.97; 1 ITS study).Educational interventionsSafety training interventions may result in no significant reduction of non-fatal injuries (1 ITS study and 1 CBA study).Informational interventionsWe found no studies that had evaluated informational interventions alone such as campaigns for risk communication.Persuasive interventionsWe found no studies that had evaluated persuasive interventions alone such as peer feedback on workplace actions to increase acceptance of safe working methods.Facilitative interventionsMonetary subsidies to companies may lead to a greater decrease in non-fatal injuries from falls to a lower level than no subsidies (risk ratio (RR) at follow-up: 0.93; 95% CI 0.30 to 2.91 from RR 3.89 at baseline; 1 CBA study).Multifaceted interventionsA safety campaign intervention may result in an initial (ES -1.82; 95% CI -2.90 to -0.74) and sustained (ES -1.30; 95% CI -1.79 to -0.81) decrease in injuries at the company level (1 ITS study), but not at the regional level (1 ITS study). A multifaceted drug-free workplace programme at the company level may reduce non-fatal injuries in the year following implementation by -7.6 per 100 person-years (95% CI -11.2 to -4.0) and in the years thereafter by -2.0 per 100 person-years (95% CI -3.5 to -0.5) (1 ITS study). Introducing occupational health services may result in no decrease in fatal or non-fatal injuries (one CBA study). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: The vast majority of interventions to adopt safety measures recommended by standard texts on safety, consultants and safety courses have not been adequately evaluated. There is very low-quality evidence that introducing regulations as such may or may not result in a decrease in fatal and non-fatal injuries. There is also very low-quality evidence that regionally oriented safety campaigns, training, inspections or the introduction of occupational health services may not reduce non-fatal injuries in construction companies. There is very low-quality evidence that company-oriented safety interventions such as a multifaceted safety campaign, a multifaceted drug workplace programme and subsidies for replacement of scaffoldings may reduce non-fatal injuries among construction workers. More studies, preferably cluster-randomised controlled trials, are needed to evaluate different strategies to increase the employers' and workers' adherence to the safety measures prescribed by regulation.

What is a 'good' job? Modelling job quality for blue collar workers.

This paper proposes a model of job quality, developed from interviews with blue collar workers: bus drivers, manufacturing operatives and cleaners (n  =  80). The model distinguishes between core features, important for almost all workers, and 'job fit' features, important to some but not others, or where individuals might have different preferences. Core job features found important for almost all interviewees included job security, personal safety and having enough pay to meet their needs. 'Job fit' features included autonomy and the opportunity to form close relationships. These showed more variation between participants; priorities were influenced by family commitments, stage of life and personal preference. The resulting theoretical perspective indicates the features necessary for a job to be considered 'good' by the person doing it, whilst not adversely affecting their health. The model should have utility as a basis for measuring and improving job quality and the laudable goal of creating 'good jobs'. Practitioner Summary: Good work can contribute positively to health and well-being, but there is a lack of agreement regarding the concept of a 'good' job. A model of job quality has been constructed based on semi-structured worker interviews (n  =  80). The model emphasises the need to take into account variation between individuals in their preferred work characteristics.

State of science: occupational slips, trips and falls on the same level.

Occupational slips, trips and falls on the same level (STFL) result in substantial injuries worldwide. This paper summarises the state of science regarding STFL, outlining relevant aspects of epidemiology, biomechanics, psychophysics, tribology, organisational influences and injury prevention. This review reaffirms that STFL remain a major cause of workplace injury and STFL prevention is a complex problem, requiring multi-disciplinary, multi-faceted approaches. Despite progress in recent decades in understanding the mechanisms involved in STFL, especially slipping, research leading to evidence-based prevention practices remains insufficient, given the problem scale. It is concluded that there is a pressing need to develop better fall prevention strategies using systems approaches conceptualising and addressing the factors involved in STFL, with considerations of the full range of factors and their interactions. There is also an urgent need for field trials of various fall prevention strategies to assess the effectiveness of different intervention components and their interactions. Practitioner Summary: Work-related slipping, tripping and falls on the same level are a major source of occupational injury. The causes are broadly understood, although more attention is needed from a systems perspective. Research has shown preventative action to be effective, but further studies are required to understand which aspects are most beneficial.

Interventions to prevent injuries in construction workers.

BACKGROUND: Construction workers are frequently exposed to various types of injury-inducing hazards. A number of injury prevention interventions have been proposed, yet their effectiveness is uncertain. OBJECTIVES: To assess the effects of interventions to prevent injuries in construction workers. SEARCH METHODS: We searched the Cochrane Injuries Group's specialised register, CENTRAL, MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO, OSH-ROM (including NIOSHTIC and HSELINE), Scopus, Web of Science and EI Compendex to September 2011. The searches were not restricted by language or publication status. The reference lists of relevant papers and reviews were also searched. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomised controlled trials, controlled before-after (CBA) studies and interrupted time series (ITS) of all types of interventions for preventing fatal and non-fatal injuries among workers at construction sites. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two review authors independently selected studies, extracted data and assessed study quality. For ITS, we re-analysed the studies and used an initial effect, measured as the change in injury-rate in the year after the intervention, as well as a sustained effect, measured as the change in time trend before and after the intervention. MAIN RESULTS: Thirteen studies, 12 ITS and one CBA study met the inclusion criteria. The ITS evaluated the effects of the introduction or change of regulations (N = 7), a safety campaign (N = 2), a drug-free workplace programme (N = 1), a training programme (N = 1), and safety inspections (N = 1) on fatal and non-fatal occupational injuries. One CBA study evaluated the introduction of occupational health services such as risk assessment and health surveillance.The overall risk of bias among the included studies was high as it was uncertain for the ITS studies whether the intervention was independent from other changes and thus could be regarded as the main reason of change in the outcome.The regulatory interventions at national or branch level showed a small but significant initial and sustained increase in fatal (effect sizes of 0.79; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.00 to 1.58) and non-fatal injuries (effect size 0.23; 95% CI 0.03 to 0.43).The safety campaign intervention resulted in a decrease in injuries at the company level but an increase at the regional level. Training interventions, inspections or the introduction of occupational health services did not result in a significant reduction of non-fatal injuries in single studies.A multifaceted drug-free workplace programme at the company level reduced non-fatal injuries in the year following implementation by -7.6 per 100 person-years (95% CI -11.2 to -4.0) and in the years thereafter by -2.0 per 100 person-years per year (95% CI -3.5 to -0.5). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: The vast majority of technical, human and organisational interventions that are recommended by standard texts of safety, consultants and safety courses have not been adequately evaluated. There is no evidence that introducing regulations for reducing fatal and non-fatal injuries are effective as such. There is neither evidence that regionally oriented safety campaigns, training, inspections nor the introduction of occupational health services are effective at reducing non-fatal injuries in construction companies. There is low-quality evidence that company-oriented safety interventions such as a multifaceted safety campaign and a multifaceted drug workplace programme can reduce non-fatal injuries among construction workers. Additional strategies are needed to increase the compliance of employers and workers to the safety measures that are prescribed by regulation. Continuing company-oriented interventions among management and construction workers, such as a targeted safety campaign or a drug-free workplace programme, seem to have an effect in reducing injuries in the longer term.

Going underground: Fatigue and sleepiness in tunnelling operations.

This research represents one of the first qualitative studies to investigate fatigue in the tunnelling sector of the construction industry. It explores the opinions of tunnellers and their managers about how fatigue influences or is influenced by tunnelling, and how this is managed. Fatigue and sleepiness were discussed in six focus groups with frontline workers (n = 42) and 10 manager interviews. Fatigue was seen to be a problem, with all participants having experienced, or recognised in others, the feeling of sleepiness whilst at work. Fatigue and sleepiness are not commonly discussed between tunnelling workers and they do not feel comfortable reporting instances of fatigue. The research shows that workers in the tunnelling construction sector are exposed to a wide range of occupational factors that potentially increase their vulnerability to fatigue, including the physical environment, repetitive and monotonous tasks, variable shift patterns and manual work. Additionally, personal factors such as social and family demands, long commute times and living away from home, can increase the risk of fatigue. The construction industry in general has gone some way to address fatigue and there is opportunity to further improve fatigue management. However, a major shift is needed before workers will feel able to openly discuss fatigue with their employer.

What constitutes effective manual handling training? A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Injuries caused by manual handling are a major burden to society. Manual handling training programmes have been designed to reduce the likelihood of injury among the workforce; however, concerns have been raised over the efficacy of current manual handling training methods. AIMS: To undertake a systematic review of the literature examining the effectiveness of different approaches to training in manual handling. METHODS: Peer-reviewed publications along with published conference proceedings published in English, between 1980 and 2009, on the topic of manual handling training comprised the search criteria. A published checklist for reviewing papers was selected, which formed the basis for assessing the quality of the papers reviewed. RESULTS: A total of 1827 papers were located. Following elimination of duplicates, 221 papers were collected and reviewed. Of these, 53 papers were intervention studies with the primary aim of investigating the effectiveness of manual handling training. The review identified little evidence supporting the effectiveness of both technique- and educational-based manual handling training. In addition, there was considerable evidence supporting the idea that the principles learnt during training are not applied in the working environment. Strength and flexibility training shows promise; however, further research is needed to ascertain whether such an intervention is sustainable over the long term. CONCLUSIONS: The evidence collected indicates that manual handling training is largely ineffective in reducing back pain and back injury. High priority should be given to developing and evaluating multidimensional interventions, incorporating exercise training to promote strength and flexibility, which are tailored to the industrial sector.

The use of actor-based immersive health and safety inductions: Lessons from the Thames Tideway Tunnel megaproject.

Health and safety inductions are ubiquitous in construction but tend to be poorly designed and suffer low levels of worker engagement. In this paper we report on the evaluation of an innovative, full day, actor-based health and safety induction called EPIC, currently being used on London's Thames Tideway Tunnel megaproject. As of March 2019, more than 14,000 individuals had attended EPIC. This evaluation examines the impact of EPIC from the perspective of participants and other stakeholders, and considers the utility of actor-based immersive health and safety inductions for use more widely, in both construction and other sectors. Using a mixed-method, longitudinal approach to data collection, EPIC is evaluated against Kirkpatrick's (1959) 'four levels' framework of reactions, learning, behaviour change and results. This paper discusses factors which support and hinder actor-based inductions, and the challenges involved in assessing the impact of inductions on subsequent behaviour and health and safety outcomes.

Subjective skeletal discomfort measured using a comfort questionnaire following a load carriage exercise.

OBJECTIVE: Limited research has been conducted into the effect of load carriage on discomfort and injuries. This study aimed to determine the skeletal discomfort for part-time soldiers who completed a 1-hour field march carrying 24 kg. METHODS: A postmarch comfort questionnaire was completed by 127 participants, with exercise withdrawals and postmarch injuries also recorded. RESULTS: The foot was subjectively rated as the most uncomfortable skeletal region. Females reported hip discomfort to be significantly greater than males. The military experience of participants had no difference on the mean perceived comfort ratings of any of the measured regions. Finally, only one participant withdrew from the exercise, with no participants reporting a load carriage injury in the 2 to 3 days proceeding the exercise CONCLUSIONS: This study concludes that although a 1-hour period of load carriage causes noteworthy discomfort it is not sufficient to result in noncompletion of a military exercise or cause injury.

The effect of military load carriage on 3-D lower limb kinematics and spatiotemporal parameters.

The 3-D gait analysis of military load carriage is not well represented, if at all, within the available literature. This study collected 3-D lower limb kinematics and spatiotemporal parameters in order to assess the subsequent impact of carrying loads in a backpack of up to 32 kg. Results showed the addition of load significantly decreased the range of motion of flexion/extension of the knee and pelvic rotation. Also seen were increases in adduction/abduction and rotation of the hip and pelvis tilt. No changes to ankle kinematics were observed. Alterations to the spatiotemporal parameters of gait were also of considerable interest, namely, an increase in double support and a decrease in preferred stride length as carried load increased. Analysing kinematics during military or recreational load carriage broadens the knowledge regarding the development of exercise-related injuries, while helping to inform the human-centred design process for future load carrying systems. The importance of this study is that limited available research has investigated 3-D lower limb joint kinematics when carrying loads.

Prevalence of work-related musculoskeletal disorders in agriculture workers in Korea and preventative interventions.

BACKGROUND: Work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) are estimated to be the most common and frequent of all occupational diseases in agriculture in Korea, but the full extent of the problem has yet to be surveyed. OBJECTIVE: This paper presents the results of a survey investigating the extent of WMSDs among self-employed farmers in Korea. It also describes ergonomics based preventive interventions initiated by the Korean government. METHOD: The prevalence of WMSDs was surveyed among 358 farmers using a questionnaire adapted from the Nordic questionnaires, employing three case definitions. RESULTS: The results showed that the overall prevalence rates of WMSDs by case definition 1 (any symptoms), 2 (symptoms with a pain intensity of moderate or greater), and 3 (symptoms with a pain intensity of high or greater) were 97.2%, 83.2%, and 39.7% respectively and that the shoulder, knee and lower back disorder rates were higher than those of other body parts. Compared to the prevalence rates of WMSDs for workers in other industries in Korea as well as USA farmers, the overall rates for farmers in Korea were much higher. The interventions, which adopted a participatory approach involving government, farmers, ergonomics, technical and industrial hygiene experts, showed benefits in terms of work efficiency, safety and farmer satisfaction. CONCLUSIONS: The high WMSD symptom prevalence showed that agriculture is one of the most hazardous industries in Korea, and the Korean government's interventions were effective and successful.

The effectiveness of interventions for preventing injuries in the construction industry: a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Occupational injury rates among construction workers are the highest among the major industries. A number of injury-prevention interventions have been proposed, yet the effectiveness of these is uncertain. Thus a systematic review evaluating the effectiveness of interventions for preventing occupational injuries among construction workers was conducted. METHODS: Seven databases were searched, from the earliest available dates through June 2006, for published findings of injury prevention in construction studies. Acceptable study designs included RCTs; controlled before-after studies; and interrupted time series (ITS). Effect sizes of similar interventions were pooled into a meta-analysis in January 2007. RESULTS: Of 7522 titles found, four ITS studies and one controlled ITS study met the inclusion criteria. The overall methodologic quality was low. No indications of publication bias were found. Findings from a safety-campaign study and a drug-free-workplace study indicated that both interventions significantly reduced the level and the trend of injuries. Three studies that evaluated legislation did not decrease the level (ES 0.69; 95% CI=-1.70, 3.09) and made the downward trend (ES 0.28; 95% CI=0.05, 0.51) of injuries less favorable. CONCLUSIONS: Limited evidence was found for the effectiveness of a multifaceted safety campaign and a multifaceted drug program, but no evidence was found that legislation is effective to prevent nonfatal or fatal injuries in the construction industry.

Factors influencing experience in crowds - The organiser perspective.

Crowds are a commonplace encounter but the experience for participants can be highly variable. Crowds are complex sociotechnical phenomenon, affected by many interacting factors. Little is known, however, about how those responsible for organising crowd situations approach their responsibilities. This study conducted semi-structured interviews (n = 41) with organisers responsible for different aspects of the design, planning, management and operations of events and other crowd situations. The objective was to understand organisers' priorities, along with the consideration given to the experience of crowd participants. The interviews revealed that organisers generally prioritised finance, security and health and safety aspects, whilst giving limited explicit attention to other important factors that affect participant experience. Organisers tended to approach their planning and decisions on the basis of their own experience and judgement, without accessing training or reference to guidance. It is suggested that the non-use of guidance is in part due to problems with the guidance currently available, both its content and its form. The organisers of infrequent or small-scale events have the greatest knowledge and experience gap. It is concluded that in order to achieve a consistent, high quality experience for crowd participants, there needs to be improved understanding among organisers of the complexity of crowds and the multiple factors influencing participant experience. Guidance and tools need to be usable and tailored to organisers' requirements. Organisers of infrequent or small-scale events are especially in need of support.

The effect of military load carriage on ground reaction forces.

Load carriage is an inevitable part of military life both during training and operations. Loads carried are frequently as high as 60% bodyweight, and this increases injury risk. In the military, load is carried in a backpack (also referred to as a Bergen) and webbing, these combined form a load carriage system (LCS). A substantial body of literature exists recording the physiological effects of load carriage; less is available regarding the biomechanics. Previous biomechanical studies have generally been restricted to loads of 20% and 40% of bodyweight, usually carried in the backpack alone. The effect of rifle carriage on gait has also received little or no attention in the published literature. This is despite military personnel almost always carrying a rifle during load carriage. In this study, 15 male participants completed 8 conditions: military boot, rifle, webbing 8 and 16 kg, backpack 16 kg and LCS 24, 32 and 40 kg. Results showed that load added in 8 kg increments elicited a proportional increase in vertical and anteroposterior ground reaction force (GRF) parameters. Rifle carriage significantly increased the impact peak and mediolateral impulse compared to the boot condition. These effects may be the result of changes to the vertical and horizontal position of the body's centre of mass, caused by the restriction of natural arm swing patterns. Increased GRFs, particularly in the vertical axis, have been positively linked to overuse injuries. Therefore, the biomechanical analysis of load carriage is important in aiding our understanding of injuries associated with military load carriage.

The interaction between design and occupier behaviour in the safety of new homes.

The design of new homes includes many safety features intended to protect occupiers from injury or ill health within the home, however the effectiveness of these primary intervention measures is likely to be affected by user behaviour. This study examined the interaction between user activity and dwelling design and how this might affect health and safety. It aimed to identify how people use features within new homes and how this may limit the protection afforded by building design, codes and regulations. Forty, home-based, semi-structured, in-depth interviews and home inspections were conducted with individuals recently inhabiting a new home. A range of behaviours were reported in relation to building features including fire doors, pipes and cables, and loft access, which may lead to increased risk of injury or ill-health. For example, occupiers described interfering with the self-closing mechanisms on fire doors and drilling into walls without considering the location of services. They also reported knowingly engaging in unsafe behaviour when accessing the loft, increasing their risk of falls. The accounts suggest that designers and builders need to give greater consideration to how occupier behaviour interacts with building features so that improvements in both design and occupier education can lead to improved health and safety.

Developing the stage of change approach for the reduction of work-related musculoskeletal disorders.

Musculoskeletal disorders remain the most prevalent form of occupational ill health, prompting examination of why attempts to manage the problem have been less successful than perhaps hoped. With a view to improving the efficacy of such interventions, this study examined the applicability of the stage of change approach to the workplace. Tools were developed to assess individual and organizational stage of change towards reducing the risks of musculoskeletal disorders. The tools were tested in a range of occupational sectors, and demonstrated high levels of validity and reliability. Implications for the application of the model in the workplace for improving intervention effectiveness are discussed.