Effect of a single session of sensorimotor rhythm neurofeedback training on the putting performance of professional golfers.

Sensorimotor rhythm (SMR) activity has been associated with automaticity and flow in motor execution. Studies have revealed that neurofeedback training (NFT) of the SMR can improve sports performance; however, few studies have adequately explored the effects of a single session of such NFT or examined the possible mechanisms underlying these effects on sports performance. This study recruited 44 professional golfers to address these gaps in the literature. A crossover design was employed to determine the order of the participation in the NFT and no-training control conditions. The participants were asked to perform 60 10-foot putts while electroencephalograms (EEGs) were recorded before and after the tasks. In pre-and post-tests, visual analog scales were used to assess the psychological states associated with SMR activities including the levels of attention engagement, conscious motor control, and physical relaxation. The results revealed that a single NFT session effectively increased SMR power and improved putting performance compared with the control condition. The subjective assessments also revealed that the participants reported lower attention engagement, less conscious control of the motor details and were more relaxed in the putting task, suggesting that SMR NFT promoted effortless and quiescent mental states during motor preparation for a putting task. This study aligns with theoretical hypotheses and extends current knowledge by revealing that a single session of SMR NFT can effectively enhance SMR power and improve putting performance in professional golfers. It also provides preliminary evidence of the possible underlying mechanisms that drive the effect of SMR NFT on putting performances.

A mental workload and biomechanical assessment during split-belt locomotor adaptation with and without optic flow.

Adaptive human performance relies on the central nervous system to regulate the engagement of cognitive-motor resources as task demands vary. Despite numerous studies which employed a split-belt induced perturbation to examine biomechanical outcomes during locomotor adaptation, none concurrently examined the cerebral cortical dynamics to assess changes in mental workload. Additionally, while prior work suggests that optic flow provides critical information for walking regulation, a few studies have manipulated visual inputs during adaption to split-belt walking. This study aimed to examine the concurrent modulation of gait and Electroencephalography (EEG) cortical dynamics underlying mental workload during split-belt locomotor adaptation, with and without optic flow. Thirteen uninjured participants with minimal inherent walking asymmetries at baseline underwent adaptation, while temporal-spatial gait and EEG spectral metrics were recorded. The results revealed a reduction in step length and time asymmetry from early to late adaptation, accompanied by an elevated frontal and temporal theta power; the former being well corelated to biomechanical changes. While the absence of optic flow during adaptation did not affect temporal-spatial gait metrics, it led to an increase of theta and low-alpha power. Thus, as individuals adapt their locomotor patterns, the cognitive-motor resources underlying the encoding and consolidation processes of the procedural memory were recruited to acquire a new internal model of the perturbation. Also, when adaption occurs without optic flow, a further reduction of arousal is accompanied with an elevation of attentional engagement due to enhanced neurocognitive resources likely to maintain adaptive walking patterns.

Collaborative neural processes predict successful cognitive-motor performance.

Psychomotor efficiency is achieved by expert performers who exhibit refined attentional strategies and efficient motor program execution. Further understanding of the psychomotor efficiency hypothesis requires examination of the co-activation of key electroencephalographic (EEG) indices, including frontal theta (Fθ) power, left temporal alpha (T3α) power, the sensory-motor rhythm (SMR), and frontocentral alpha power (FCα). This study examined the relationship between these selected neural processes and the odds of successful cognitive-motor performance. EEG indices of successful and failed putts observed in twenty-seven skilled golfers were subjected to mixed-effects logistic regression analysis. The results revealed that concurrent elevations of Fθ and T3α were associated with increased odds of successful performance. The co-activation from motoric processes indicated by SMR and FCα also elevated the odds. Overall, the findings emphasize that refined attention allocation and effective motor program processing are essential cognitive features of superior cognitive-motor performance for skilled golfers.

A Comparison of Mental Workload in Individuals with Transtibial and Transfemoral Lower Limb Loss during Dual-Task Walking under Varying Demand.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to evaluate the influence of lower limb loss (LL) on mental workload by assessing neurocognitive measures in individuals with unilateral transtibial (TT) versus those with transfemoral (TF) LL while dual-task walking under varying cognitive demand. METHODS: Electroencephalography (EEG) was recorded as participants performed a task of varying cognitive demand while being seated or walking (i.e., varying physical demand). RESULTS: The findings revealed both groups of participants (TT LL vs. TF LL) exhibited a similar EEG theta synchrony response as either the cognitive or the physical demand increased. Also, while individuals with TT LL maintained similar performance on the cognitive task during seated and walking conditions, those with TF LL exhibited performance decrements (slower response times) on the cognitive task during the walking in comparison to the seated conditions. Furthermore, those with TF LL neither exhibited regional differences in EEG low-alpha power while walking, nor EEG high-alpha desynchrony as a function of cognitive task difficulty while walking. This lack of alpha modulation coincided with no elevation of theta/alpha ratio power as a function of cognitive task difficulty in the TF LL group. CONCLUSIONS: This work suggests that both groups share some common but also different neurocognitive features during dual-task walking. Although all participants were able to recruit neural mechanisms critical for the maintenance of cognitive-motor performance under elevated cognitive or physical demands, the observed differences indicate that walking with a prosthesis, while concurrently performing a cognitive task, imposes additional cognitive demand in individuals with more proximal levels of amputation.

Biomechanical and neurocognitive performance outcomes of walking with transtibial limb loss while challenged by a concurrent task.

Individuals who have sustained loss of a lower limb may require adaptations in sensorimotor and control systems to effectively utilize a prosthesis, and the interaction of these systems during walking is not clearly understood for this patient population. The aim of this study was to concurrently evaluate temporospatial gait mechanics and cortical dynamics in a population with and without unilateral transtibial limb loss (TT). Utilizing motion capture and electroencephalography, these outcomes were simultaneously collected while participants with and without TT completed a concurrent task of varying difficulty (low- and high-demand) while seated and walking. All participants demonstrated a wider base of support and more stable gait pattern when walking and completing the high-demand concurrent task. The cortical dynamics were similarly modulated by the task demand for both groups, to include a decrease in the novelty-P3 component and increase in the frontal theta/parietal alpha ratio power when completing the high-demand task, although specific differences were also observed. These findings confirm and extend prior efforts indicating that dual-task walking can negatively affect walking mechanics and/or neurocognitive performance. However, there may be limited additional cognitive and/or biomechanical impact of utilizing a prosthesis in a stable, protected environment in TT who have acclimated to ambulating with a prosthesis. These results highlight the need for future work to evaluate interactions between these cognitive-motor control systems for individuals with more proximal levels of lower limb loss, and in more challenging (ecologically valid) environments.

Cerebral cortical networking for mental workload assessment under various demands during dual-task walking.

While several studies have examined attentional reserve (via event-related potentials) and mental effort (via EEG spectral content) from various cortical regions during dual-task walking, none have assessed changes in the magnitude of interregional (cortico-cortical) communication as a measure of mental workload. Therefore, by deploying a traditional montage of electrode sites centered over the motor planning region as well as a more comprehensive graph theory-based approach encompassing the entire scalp, this study aimed to systematically examine changes in the magnitude of functional connectivity underlying cortico-cortical communication to assess changes in mental workload under various levels of challenge. Specifically, the Weighted Phase Lag Index (WPLI) was computed to assess the changes in magnitude of functional connectivity as participants performed a cognitive task under two demands (low and high) and two conditions (seated and walking). The results revealed enhanced fronto-centro-temporo-parietal theta connectivity during dual-task walking relative to being seated as well as a reduced inhibition of fronto-centro-temporo-parieto-occipital alpha networking as the demand on the secondary cognitive task increased. Collectively, these findings may reflect greater recruitment of task relevant processes to respond to increased cognitive-motor demands and thus an elevation of mental workload in an effort to maintain performance under varying levels of challenge. This work has the potential to inform future mental workload assessment applications in patient populations, including those who employ prostheses during cognitive-motor performance under various task demands.

Differences in movement-related cortical activation patterns underlying motor performance in children with and without developmental coordination disorder.

Behavioral deficits in visuomotor planning and control exhibited by children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) have been extensively reported. Although these functional impairments are thought to result from "atypical brain development," very few studies to date have identified potential neurological mechanisms. To address this knowledge gap, electroencephalography (EEG) was recorded from 6- to 12-yr-old children with and without DCD (n = 14 and 20, respectively) during the performance of a visuomotor drawing task. With respect to motor performance, typically developing (TD) children exhibited age-related improvements in key aspects of motor planning and control. Although some children with DCD performed outside this TD landscape (i.e., age-related changes within the TD group), the group developmental trajectory of the children with DCD was similar to that of the TD children. Despite overall similarities in performance, engagement of cortical resources in the children with DCD was markedly different from that in their TD counterparts. While the patterns of activation are stable in TD children across the age range, the young children with DCD exhibited less engagement of motor cortical brain areas and the older children with DCD exhibited greater engagement of motor cortical brain areas than their TD peers. These results suggest that older children with DCD may employ a compensatory strategy in which increased engagement of relevant motor resources allows these children to perform comparably to their TD peers. Moreover, the magnitude of activation was related to several kinematic measures, particularly in children with DCD, suggesting that greater engagement in motor resources may underlie better behavioral performance.

Electrocortical dynamics reflect age-related differences in movement kinematics among children and adults.

Previous neuroimaging and behavioral studies demonstrated structural and functional changes in the motor system across childhood. However, it is unclear what functionally relevant electrocortical processes underlie developmental differences in motor planning and control during multijoint, goal-directed movements. The current study characterized age-related differences in electrocortical processes during the performance of discrete aiming movements in children and adults. Electroencephalography and movement kinematics were recorded from 3 groups of participants (n = 15 each): young children (mean 6.7 years), older children (mean 10.2 years), and adults (mean 22.1 years). Age-related differences were evident in the electroencephalographic (EEG) signals. First, young children exhibited less movement-related activity in task-relevant motor areas compared with adults (movement-related cortical potentials). Second, young children exhibited greater activation (less alpha power) of the frontal areas and less activation of the parietal areas as compared with the other groups. At the behavioral level, young children made slower and jerkier movements, with less consistent directional planning compared with older children and adults. Significant correlations were also found between EEG and movement kinematic measures. Taken together, the results of this study provide evidence that age-related differences in the quality of motor planning and performance are reflected in the differences in electrocortical dynamics among children and adults.

Beyond age and gender: relationships between cortical and subcortical brain volume and cognitive-motor abilities in school-age children.

There is growing evidence that cognitive and motor functions are interrelated and may rely on the development of the same cortical and subcortical neural structures. However, no study to date has examined the relationships between brain volume, cognitive ability, and motor ability in typically developing children. The NIH MRI Study of Normal Brain Development consists of a large, longitudinal database of structural MRI and performance measures from a battery of neuropsychological assessments from typically developing children. This dataset provides a unique opportunity to examine relationships between the brain and cognitive-motor abilities. A secondary analysis was conducted on data from 172 children between the ages of 6 to 13 years with up to 2 measurement occasions (initial testing and 2-year follow-up). Linear mixed effects modeling was employed to account for age and gender effects on the development of specific cortical and subcortical volumes as well as behavioral performance measures of interest. Above and beyond the effects of age and gender, significant relationships were found between general cognitive ability (IQ) and the volume of subcortical brain structures (cerebellum and caudate) as well as spatial working memory and the putamen. In addition, IQ was found to be related to global and frontal gray matter volume as well as parietal gray and white matter. At the behavioral level, general cognitive ability was also found to be related to visuomotor ability (pegboard) and executive function (spatial working memory). These results support the notion that cognition and motor skills may be fundamentally interrelated at both the levels of behavior and brain structure.

Ballroom dancers exhibit a dispositional need for arousal and elevated cerebral cortical activity during preferred melodic recall.

BACKGROUND: Although the association of human temperament and preference has been studied previously, few investigations have examined cerebral cortical activation to assess brain dynamics associated with the motivation to engage in performance. The present study adopted a personality and cognitive neuroscience approach to investigate if participation in ballroom dancing is associated with sensation-seeking temperament and elevated cerebral cortical arousal during freely chosen musical recall. METHODS: Preferred tempo, indicated by tapping speed during melodic recall, and a measure of fundamental disposition or temperament were assessed in 70 ballroom dancers and 71 nondancers. All participants completed a trait personality inventory (i.e., the Chen Huichang 60 Temperaments Inventory) to determine four primary types: choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic and melancholic. Participants separately recalled their favorite musical piece and tapped to it with their index finger for 40 beats using a computer keyboard. A subset of 59 participants (29 ballroom dancers and 30 nondancers) also repeated the same tapping task while electroencephalographic (EEG) activity was recorded. RESULTS: The results revealed that the dancers were more extraverted, indicative of a heightened need for arousal, exhibited a preference for faster musical tempo, and exhibited elevated EEG beta power during the musical recall task relative to nondancers. Paradoxically, dancers also showed elevated introversion (i.e., melancholic score) relative to nondancers, which can be resolved by consideration of interactional personality theory if one assumes reasonably that dance performance environment is perceived in a stimulating manner. CONCLUSION: The results are generally consistent with arousal theory, and suggest that ballroom dancers seek elevated stimulation and, thereby, choose to engage with active and energetic rhythmic auditory stimulation, thus providing the nervous system with the requisite stimulation for desired arousal. These results also suggest an underlying predisposition for engagement in ballroom dance and support the gravitational hypothesis, which propose that personality traits and perception lead to the motivation to engage in specific forms of human performance.

Effect of Self-Controlled Practice on Neuro-Cortical Dynamics During the Processing of Visual Performance Feedback.

Evidence has accumulated that learners participating in self-controlled practice can both acquire skills and process task-relevant information more effectively than those participating in externally controlled practice. However, the impact of self-controlled practice on neuro-cognitive information processing during visual performance-related feedback has received limited investigation. We expected that individuals participating in self-controlled practice would exhibit elevated neuro-cognitive information processing, as assessed via electroencephalography (EEG), compared with those engaged with externally controlled practice. Participants practiced a golf-putting task under self-controlled or externally controlled (yoked) conditions while EEG data were recorded. Results indicated that EEG theta power was maintained at an elevated level during the feedback period in the self-controlled group relative to the yoked group. The yoked group did not display increases in theta power until the time at which the ball stopped. Both groups displayed similar improvement over the course of the experiment. Correlational analyses revealed that performance improvement within each group was related differently to EEG theta power. Specifically, the self-controlled group displayed positive relationships between theta power and performance improvement, while the yoked group displayed negative relationships. These results have implications regarding the relative effectiveness of self-controlled and externally controlled practice and the instances in which they may provide the most benefit.

Influence of cognitive-motor expertise on brain dynamics of anticipatory-based outcome processing.

Motor experience plays an important role in the ability to anticipate action outcomes, but little is known about the brain processes through which it modulates the preparation for unexpected events. To address this issue, EEG was employed while table tennis players and novices observed videos of serves in order to predict the expected ball direction based on the kinematics of a model's movement. Furthermore, we manipulated the congruency between the model's body kinematics and the subsequent ball trajectory while assessing the cerebral cortical activity of novices and experts to understand how experts respond to unexpected outcomes. Experts were more accurate in predicting the ball trajectories than novices and were further differentiated from novices in the cortical dynamics just prior to ball contact and during the period of observation of the ball trajectories. Consistent with the predicted response-outcome model, experts exhibited elevated theta oscillations during the incongruent relative to the congruent trajectories, while no such differences were observed in the novices. Source estimation for theta activity revealed stronger activation in the middle frontal gyrus for the experts in response to the incongruent trajectories. Collectively, the observed differences in cortical dynamics between the groups suggest that motor experience promotes central neural system adaptations that facilitate preparation for anticipated outcomes and contributes to adaptive cognitive-motor responses in the face of uncertainty.

Self-Controlled Practice to Achieve Neuro-Cognitive Engagement: Underlying Brain Processes to Enhance Cognitive-Motor Learning and Performance.

While self-controlled practice has been shown to be an effective practice methodology, the neuro-cognitive correlates of its effectiveness are unclear. We investigated whether learners participating in self-controlled practice exhibit increased neuro-cognitive engagement compared to externally controlled practice. Two groups (self-controlled and yoked) of 16 participants practiced and performed a golf putting task over 3 days. Working memory engagement, central executive activity, and cortical activation were assessed via electroencephalography as indicators of neuro-cognitive engagement. The self-controlled group exhibited more consistent working memory engagement, and greater central executive activity, compared to the yoked group during practice. Relationships were also observed between neuro-cognitive engagement during self-controlled practice and performance improvement, indicating that self-controlled practice uniquely benefitted from increased neuro-cognitive engagement.

Electroencephalographic coherence during visuomotor performance: a comparison of cortico-cortical communication in experts and novices.

The authors assessed electroencephalographic coherence to determine the relation between cortico-cortical communication and visuomotor skill in 15 expert and 21 novice rifle shooters. They then calculated coherence and phase angles among the prefrontal (F3, F4) and ipsilateral cortical regions (central, temporal, parietal, occipital) during the aiming period for the theta (4-7 Hz), low-alpha (8-10 Hz), high-alpha (11-13 Hz), low-beta (14-22 Hz), high-beta (23-35 Hz), and gamma (36-44 Hz) bands. The authors subjected them separately to a series of analyses of variance (Group X Hemisphere X Region X Epoch). Experts generally exhibited lower coherence compared with novices, with the effect most prominent in the right hemisphere. The groups also exhibited differences in phase angle in a number of frequency bands. Coherence was positively related to aiming movement variability in experts. The results support refinement of cortical networks in experts and differences in strategic planning related to memory processes and executive influence over visual-spatial cues.

Sleep health and its association with performance and motivation in tactical athletes enrolled in the Reserve Officers' Training Corps.

OBJECTIVE: To examine habitual sleep health and investigate how habitual sleep duration impacts performance and motivation in Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) tactical athletes. DESIGN: Observational. SETTING: A large, state university. PARTICIPANTS: Fifty-four young tactical athletes enrolled in ROTC. MEASUREMENTS: Participants wore wrist actigraph devices and completed sleep diaries for 7 days prior to completing a cognitive/motor test battery. RESULTS: The mean objective total sleep time of the participants was 6.17 ±â€¯0.69 hours, with only 7.4% of participants averaging ≥7 hours of sleep per day. A mean sleep quality rating between "Poor" and "Fair" was reported by 22.2% of participants. The mean Epworth Sleepiness Scale rating was 8.80 ±â€¯3.24, with 27.8% of participants reporting scores >10. Controlling for age and gender, the average objective total sleep duration was significantly associated with performance on the Symbol Digit Modalities Test (P = .026) and with motivation levels to perform the cognitive/motor battery (P = .016), but not with performance on the Psychomotor Vigilance Test, Flanker task, Trail Making Test, or Standing Broad Jump. CONCLUSIONS: ROTC tactical athletes habitually sleep less than the recommended 7 hours per day with roughly one-fourth reporting excessive daytime sleepiness and one-fifth reporting poor sleep quality, which may increase their risk for future adverse health outcomes. Longer sleep durations were associated with higher motivation levels and better cognitive processing speed performance; however, they were not associated with executive function, psychomotor vigilance, or broad jump performance.

Effects of sleep extension on cognitive/motor performance and motivation in military tactical athletes.

OBJECTIVE: Investigate the immediate and residual impacts of sleep extension in tactical athletes. METHODS: A randomized controlled trial (Sleep extension = EXT vs Control = CON) was conducted on 50 (EXT: 20.12 ± 2.01 years vs CON: 19.76 ± 1.09 years) tactical athletes enrolled in the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC). Participants wore actigraphs for 15 consecutive nights and completed a cognitive/motor battery after seven habitual sleep nights, after four sleep extension nights, and after the resumption of habitual sleep for four nights. The CON group remained on habitual sleep schedules for the entire study. RESULTS: During the intervention, the EXT group significantly increased mean sleep time (1.36 ± 0.71 h, p < 0.001). After sleep extension, there were significant between-group differences on the mean score change since baseline in Psychomotor Vigilance Test (PVT) reaction time (p = 0.026), Trail Making Test (TMT) - B time (p = 0.027), standing broad jump (SBJ) distance (p < 0.001), and motivation levels [to perform the cognitive tasks (p = 0.003) and the SBJ (p = 0.009)]; with the EXT group showing a greater enhancement in performance/motivation. After resuming habitual sleep schedules, significant between-group differences on the mean score change since baseline persisted on SBJ distance (p = 0.001) and motivation to perform the SBJ (p = 0.035), with the EXT showing greater enhancement in performance/motivation. CONCLUSION: Increasing sleep duration in military tactical athletes resulted in immediate performance benefits in psychomotor vigilance, executive functioning, standing broad jump distance, and motivation levels. Benefits on motor performance were evident four days after resumption of habitual sleep schedules. Military tactical athletes aiming to optimize their overall performance should consider the impact of longer sleep durations when feasible.

Visuomotor expertise and dimensional complexity of cerebral cortical activity.

PURPOSE: This study employed the correlation dimension (D2) to examine whether visuomotor expertise was inversely related to the complexity of cerebral cortical activity. METHOD: Expert rifle shooters (N = 15) and novices (N = 21) completed 40 shots in the standing position during which the electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded at 10 sites (F3, F4, C3, C4, T3, T4, P3, P4, O1, and O2) during a 5-s aiming period prior to trigger pull. D2 was derived for each trial and averaged across shots. A 2 x 2 x 5 (group x cerebral hemisphere x region) ANOVA was employed to contrast D2, while correlation analyses were used to determine the relationship between D2 and target shooting accuracy as well as variability of shot placement. RESULTS: As predicted, experts exhibited lower D2 (5.02 +/- 0.16 vs 5.49 +/- 0.13, respectively) and greater accuracy of shot placement ((339.8 +/- 44.7 vs 90.7 +/- 38.9 points out of 400 possible, respectively). Experts also exhibited an inverse relationship between D2 and shooting accuracy, while, in contrast, novices revealed a positive relationship. DISCUSSION: The results suggest that refinement and efficiency of cerebral cortical activity facilitates visuomotor performance. Lower complexity may be associated with less neuromotor "noise" in the brain, thus reducing interference with intended action.

Exercise, APOE, and working memory: MEG and behavioral evidence for benefit of exercise in epsilon4 carriers.

Performance on the Sternberg working memory task, and MEG cortical response on a variation of the Sternberg task were examined in middle-aged carriers and non-carriers of the APOE epsilon4 allele. Physical activity was also assessed to examine whether exercise level modifies the relationship between APOE genotype and neurocognitive function. Regression revealed that high physical activity was associated with faster RT in the six- and eight-letter conditions of the Sternberg in epsilon4 carriers, but not in the non-carriers after controlling for age, gender, and education (N=54). Furthermore, the MEG analysis revealed that sedentary epsilon4 carriers exhibited lower right temporal lobe activation on matching probe trials relative to high-active epsilon4 carriers, while physical activity did not distinguish non-carriers (N=23). The M170 peak was identified as a potential marker for pre-clinical decline as epsilon4 carriers exhibited longer M170 latency, and highly physically active participants exhibited greater M170 amplitude to matching probe trials.

Changes in Mental Workload and Motor Performance Throughout Multiple Practice Sessions Under Various Levels of Task Difficulty.

The allocation of mental workload is critical to maintain cognitive-motor performance under various demands. While mental workload has been investigated during performance, limited efforts have examined it during cognitive-motor learning, while none have concurrently manipulated task difficulty. It is reasonable to surmise that the difficulty level at which a skill is practiced would impact the rate of skill acquisition and also the rate at which mental workload is reduced during learning (relatively slowed for challenging compared to easier tasks). This study aimed to monitor mental workload by assessing cortical dynamics during a task practiced under two difficulty levels over four days while perceived task demand, performance, and electroencephalography (EEG) were collected. As expected, self-reported mental workload was reduced, greater working memory engagement via EEG theta synchrony was observed, and reduced cortical activation, as indexed by progressive EEG alpha synchrony was detected during practice. Task difficulty was positively related to the magnitude of alpha desynchrony and accompanied by elevations in the theta-alpha ratio. Counter to expectation, the absence of an interaction between task difficulty and practice days for both theta and alpha power indicates that the refinement of mental processes throughout learning occurred at a comparable rate for both levels of difficulty. Thus, the assessment of brain dynamics was sensitive to the rate of change of cognitive workload with practice, but not to the degree of difficulty. Future work should consider a broader range of task demands and additional measures of brain processes to further assess this phenomenon.

Measurement of attentional reserve and mental effort for cognitive workload assessment under various task demands during dual-task walking.

Previous work focused on cognitive workload assessment suggests EEG spectral content and component amplitudes of the event-related potential (ERP) waveform may index mental effort and attentional reserve, respectively. Although few studies have assessed attentional reserve and mental effort during upper-extremity performance, none have employed a combined approach to measure cognitive workload during locomotion. Therefore, by systematically considering ERPs, spectral content and importantly their combination, this study aimed to examine whether concurrent changes in spectral content and ERPs could collectively serve as an index of cognitive workload during locomotion. Specifically, ERP and EEG biomarkers were assessed as participants performed a cognitive task under two levels of difficulty (easy or hard) and two conditions (seated or walking). Changes in attentional reserve and mental effort appeared to collectively index cognitive workload under varying demands due to changes in task difficulty or performance conditions. This work can inform cognitive workload assessment in patient populations with gait deficiencies for future applications.