HSF1 inhibition attenuates HIV-1 latency reversal mediated by several candidate LRAs In Vitro and Ex Vivo.

HIV-1 latency is a major barrier to cure. Identification of small molecules that destabilize latency and allow immune clearance of infected cells could lead to treatment-free remission. In vitro models of HIV-1 latency involving cell lines or primary cells have been developed for characterization of HIV-1 latency and high-throughput screening for latency-reversing agents (LRAs). We have shown that the majority of LRAs identified to date are relatively ineffective in cells from infected individuals despite activity in model systems. We show here that, for diverse LRAs, latency reversal observed in model systems involves a heat shock factor 1 (HSF1)-mediated stress pathway. Small-molecule inhibition of HSF1 attenuated HIV-1 latency reversal by histone deactylase inhibitors, protein kinase C agonists, and proteasome inhibitors without interfering with the known mechanism of action of these LRAs. However, latency reversal by second mitochondria-derived activator of caspase (SMAC) mimetics was not affected by inhibition of HSF1. In cells from infected individuals, inhibition of HSF1 attenuated latency reversal by phorbol ester+ionomycin but not by anti-CD3+anti-CD28. HSF1 promotes elongation of HIV-1 RNA by recruiting P-TEFb to the HIV-1 long terminal repeat (LTR), and we show that inhibition of HSF1 attenuates the formation of elongated HIV-1 transcripts. We demonstrate that in vitro models of latency have higher levels of the P-TEFb subunit cyclin T1 than primary cells, which may explain why many LRAs are functional in model systems but relatively ineffective in primary cells. Together, these studies provide insights into why particular LRA combinations are effective in reversing latency in cells from infected individuals.

Differential Drug Susceptibility Across Trichomonasvirus Species Allows for Generation of Varied Isogenic Clones of Trichomonas vaginalis.

Trichomonas vaginalis (Tvag) is a sexually transmitted human pathogen that is commonly infected with strains of one or more of five known species of Trichomonas vaginalis viruses (TVVs), members of genus Trichomonasvirus . TVVs are thought not to have an extracellular phase to their lifecycle and instead to be transmitted vertically from mother to daughter cells. As a result, generation of isogenic virus-positive and virus-negative sets of Tvag clones has been a major barrier to study interactions between TVVs and their host. Nucleoside analog 2'-C-methylcytidine (2CMC) has been recently reported to clear trichomonads of infections with TVV1, TVV2, and TVV3. We used 2CMC to treat a panel of Tvag isolates that collectively harbor at least one representative strain of each TVV species and thereby provided evidence that infections with TVV4 and TVV5 can also be cleared by 2CMC. Furthermore, our results suggest a newly identified difference in drug susceptibility between TVV species. We took advantage of these susceptibility difference to generate isogenic sets of Tvag clones harboring different combinations of the five TVV species. These results provide both new insight into differences between these species and new avenues for generating tools to study the potential roles of TVVs in Tvag biology.

Differential Drug Susceptibility across Trichomonasvirus Species Allows for Generation of Varied Isogenic Clones of Trichomonas vaginalis.

Trichomonas vaginalis (Tvag) is a sexually transmitted human pathogen that is commonly infected with strains of one or more of five known species of Trichomonas vaginalis viruses (TVVs), members of genus Trichomonasvirus. TVVs are thought not to have an extracellular phase to their lifecycle and instead to be transmitted vertically from mother to daughter cells. As a result, generation of isogenic virus-positive and virus-negative sets of Tvag clones has been a major barrier to studying interactions between TVVs and their host. Nucleoside analog 2'-C-methylcytidine (2CMC) has been recently reported to clear trichomonads of infections with TVV1, TVV2, and TVV3. We used 2CMC to treat a panel of Tvag isolates that collectively harbor at least one representative strain of each TVV species and thereby provided evidence that infections with TVV4 and TVV5 can also be cleared by 2CMC. Furthermore, our results suggest a newly identified difference in drug susceptibility between TVV species. We took advantage of these susceptibility difference to generate isogenic sets of Tvag clones harboring different combinations of the five TVV species. These results provide both new insight into differences between these species and new avenues for generating tools to study the potential roles of TVVs in Tvag biology.

Discovery of a Novel Species of Trichomonasvirus in the Human Parasite Trichomonas vaginalis Using Transcriptome Mining.

Trichomonas vaginalis is the most common non-viral cause of sexually transmitted infections globally. Infection by this protozoan parasite results in the clinical syndrome trichomoniasis, which manifests as an inflammatory disease with acute and chronic consequences. Half or more isolates of this parasite are themselves infected with one or more dsRNA viruses that can exacerbate the inflammatory syndrome. At least four distinct viruses have been identified in T. vaginalis to date, constituting species Trichomonas vaginalis virus 1 through Trichomonas vaginalis virus 4 in genus Trichomonasvirus. Despite the global prevalence of these viruses, few complete coding sequences have been reported. We conducted viral sequence mining in publicly available transcriptomes across 60 RNA-Seq accessions representing at least 13 distinct T. vaginalis isolates. The results led to sequence assemblies for 27 novel trichomonasvirus strains across all four recognized species. Using a strategy of de novo sequence assembly followed by taxonomic classification, we additionally discovered six strains of a newly identified fifth species, for which we propose the name Trichomonas vaginalis virus 5, also in genus Trichomonasvirus. These additional strains exhibit high sequence identity to each other, but low sequence identity to strains of the other four species. Phylogenetic analyses corroborate the species-level designations. These results substantially increase the number of trichomonasvirus genome sequences and demonstrate the utility of mining publicly available transcriptomes for virus discovery in a critical human pathogen.