International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology CXIII: Nuclear Receptor Superfamily-Update 2023.

The NR superfamily comprises 48 transcription factors in humans that control a plethora of gene network programs involved in a wide range of physiologic processes. This review will summarize and discuss recent progress in NR biology and drug development derived from integrating various approaches, including biophysical techniques, structural studies, and translational investigation. We also highlight how defective NR signaling results in various diseases and disorders and how NRs can be targeted for therapeutic intervention via modulation via binding to synthetic lipophilic ligands. Furthermore, we also review recent studies that improved our understanding of NR structure and signaling. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Nuclear receptors (NRs) are ligand-regulated transcription factors that are critical regulators of myriad physiological processes. NRs serve as receptors for an array of drugs, and in this review, we provide an update on recent research into the roles of these drug targets.

A structural mechanism of nuclear receptor biased agonism.

Efforts to decrease the adverse effects of nuclear receptor (NR) drugs have yielded experimental agonists that produce better outcomes in mice. Some of these agonists have been shown to cause different, not just less intense, on-target transcriptomic effects; however, a structural explanation for such agonist-specific effects remains unknown. Here, we show that partial agonists of the NR peroxisome proliferator-associated receptor γ (PPARγ), which induce better outcomes in mice compared to clinically utilized type II diabetes PPARγ-binding drugs thiazolidinediones (TZDs), also favor a different group of coactivator peptides than the TZDs. We find that PPARγ full agonists can also be biased relative to each other in terms of coactivator peptide binding. We find differences in coactivator-PPARγ bonding between the coactivator subgroups which allow agonists to favor one group of coactivator peptides over another, including differential bonding to a C-terminal residue of helix 4. Analysis of all available NR-coactivator structures indicates that such differential helix 4 bonding persists across other NR-coactivator complexes, providing a general structural mechanism of biased agonism for many NRs. Further work will be necessary to determine if such bias translates into altered coactivator occupancy and physiology in cells.

Structure of REV-ERBß ligand-binding domain bound to a porphyrin antagonist.

REV-ERBα and REV-ERBß are members of the nuclear receptor (NR) superfamily of ligand-regulated transcription factors that play important roles in the regulation of circadian physiology, metabolism, and immune function. Although the REV-ERBs were originally characterized as orphan receptors, recent studies have demonstrated that they function as receptors for heme. Here, we demonstrate that cobalt protoporphyrin IX (CoPP) and zinc protoporphyrin IX (ZnPP) are ligands that bind directly to the REV-ERBs. However, instead of mimicking the agonist action of heme, CoPP and ZnPP function as antagonists of REV-ERB function. This was unexpected because the only distinction between these ligands is the metal ion that is coordinated. To understand the structural basis by which REV-ERBß can differentiate between a porphyrin agonist and antagonist, we characterized the interaction between REV-ERBß with heme, CoPP, and ZnPP using biochemical and structural approaches, including x-ray crystallography and NMR. The crystal structure of CoPP-bound REV-ERBß indicates only minor conformational changes induced by CoPP compared with heme, including the porphyrin ring of CoPP, which adopts a planar conformation as opposed to the puckered conformation observed in the heme-bound REV-ERBß crystal structure. Thus, subtle changes in the porphyrin metal center and ring conformation may influence the agonist versus antagonist action of porphyrins and when considered with other studies suggest that gas binding to the iron metal center heme may drive alterations in REV-ERB activity.

Ligand-binding dynamics rewire cellular signaling via estrogen receptor-α.

Ligand-binding dynamics control allosteric signaling through the estrogen receptor-α (ERα), but the biological consequences of such dynamic binding orientations are unknown. Here, we compare a set of ER ligands having dynamic binding orientation (dynamic ligands) with a control set of isomers that are constrained to bind in a single orientation (constrained ligands). Proliferation of breast cancer cells directed by constrained ligands is associated with DNA binding, coactivator recruitment and activation of the estrogen-induced gene GREB1, reflecting a highly interconnected signaling network. In contrast, proliferation driven by dynamic ligands is associated with induction of ERα-mediated transcription in a DNA-binding domain (DBD)-dependent manner. Further, dynamic ligands showed enhanced anti-inflammatory activity. The DBD-dependent profile was predictive of these signaling patterns in a larger diverse set of natural and synthetic ligands. Thus, ligand dynamics directs unique signaling pathways and reveals a new role of the DBD in allosteric control of ERα-mediated signaling.

Evidence that opioids may have toll-like receptor 4 and MD-2 effects.

Opioid-induced proinflammatory glial activation modulates wide-ranging aspects of opioid pharmacology including: opposition of acute and chronic opioid analgesia, opioid analgesic tolerance, opioid-induced hyperalgesia, development of opioid dependence, opioid reward, and opioid respiratory depression. However, the mechanism(s) contributing to opioid-induced proinflammatory actions remains unresolved. The potential involvement of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) was examined using in vitro, in vivo, and in silico techniques. Morphine non-stereoselectively induced TLR4 signaling in vitro, blocked by a classical TLR4 antagonist and non-stereoselectively by naloxone. Pharmacological blockade of TLR4 signaling in vivo potentiated acute intrathecal morphine analgesia, attenuated development of analgesic tolerance, hyperalgesia, and opioid withdrawal behaviors. TLR4 opposition to opioid actions was supported by morphine treatment of TLR4 knockout mice, which revealed a significant threefold leftward shift in the analgesia dose response function, versus wildtype mice. A range of structurally diverse clinically-employed opioid analgesics was found to be capable of activating TLR4 signaling in vitro. Selectivity in the response was identified since morphine-3-glucuronide, a morphine metabolite with no opioid receptor activity, displayed significant TLR4 activity, whilst the opioid receptor active metabolite, morphine-6-glucuronide, was devoid of such properties. In silico docking simulations revealed ligands bound preferentially to the LPS binding pocket of MD-2 rather than TLR4. An in silico to in vitro prediction model was built and tested with substantial accuracy. These data provide evidence that select opioids may non-stereoselectively influence TLR4 signaling and have behavioral consequences resulting, in part, via TLR4 signaling.

Intrathecal injection of naked plasmid DNA provides long-term expression of secreted proteins.

Therapeutic benefit has been reported to result from intrathecal (i.t.) injection of transgene vectors, including naked DNA. However, most studies using naked DNA have measured only the transgene expression of intracellular proteins. Here we demonstrate that i.t. injection of naked DNA can result in long-term expression of secreted proteins. Plasmids expressing either secreted alkaline phosphatase (SEAP) or human interleukin-10 (hIL-10) were injected into the i.t. space in rats, and transgene products were repeatedly measured in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Both SEAP and hIL-10 were maximal at 1 and 2 days after the injection and still detectable at 4 months. The utilization of a plasmid having two features that are hypothesized to increase gene expression (matrix attachment regions (MARs) and lack of CpG dinucleotides) resulted in a significant increase in gene expression. Reinjection of SEAP or hIL-10 plasmids after 4 months significantly increased protein levels at 1 and 14 days after the reinjection. SEAP was uniformly distributed between the DNA delivery site (approximately vertebral level T13) and the lumbar puncture site (L5/L6 inter-vertebral space), was reduced at the cisterna magna, and was detectable, though at much lower levels, in serum. These data suggest that naked DNA has the potential to be used as a therapeutic tool for applications that require long-term release of transgenes into the CSF.

Immunogenicity of intrathecal plasmid gene delivery: cytokine release and effects on transgene expression.

BACKGROUND: One method for the delivery of therapeutic proteins to the spinal cord is to inject nonviral gene vectors including plasmid DNA into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) that surrounds the spinal cord (intrathecal space). This approach has produced therapeutic benefits in animal models of disease and several months of protein expression; however, there is little information available on the immune response to these treatments in the intrathecal space, the relevance of plasmid CpG sequences to any plasmid-induced immune response, or the effect of this immune response on transgene expression. METHODS: In the present study, coding or noncoding plasmids were delivered to the intrathecal space of the lumbar spinal region in rats. Lumbosacral CSF was then collected at various time points afterwards for monitoring of cytokines and transgene expression. RESULTS: This work demonstrates, for the first time, increased tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-1 in response to intrathecal plasmid vector injection and provides evidence indicating that this response is largely absent in a CpG-depleted vector. Transgene expression in the CSF is not significantly affected by this immune response. Expression after intrathecal plasmid injection is variable across rats but correlates with the amount of tissue associated plasmid and is increased by disrupting normal CSF flow. CONCLUSIONS: The data obtained in the present study indicate that plasmid immunogenicity may affect intrathecal plasmid gene therapy safety but not transgene expression in the CSF. Furthermore, the development of methods to prevent loss of plasmid via CSF flow out of the central nervous system through the injection hole and/or natural outflow routes may increase intrathecal plasmid gene delivery efficacy.

Definition of functionally and structurally distinct repressive states in the nuclear receptor PPARγ.

The repressive states of nuclear receptors (i.e., apo or bound to antagonists or inverse agonists) are poorly defined, despite the fact that nuclear receptors are a major drug target. Most ligand bound structures of nuclear receptors, including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), are similar to the apo structure. Here we use NMR, accelerated molecular dynamics and hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry to define the PPARγ structural ensemble. We find that the helix 3 charge clamp positioning varies widely in apo and is stabilized by efficacious ligand binding. We also reveal a previously undescribed mechanism for inverse agonism involving an omega loop to helix switch which induces disruption of a tripartite salt-bridge network. We demonstrate that ligand binding can induce multiple structurally distinct repressive states. One state recruits peptides from two different corepressors, while another recruits just one, providing structural evidence of ligand bias in a nuclear receptor.

Defining a Canonical Ligand-Binding Pocket in the Orphan Nuclear Receptor Nurr1.

Nuclear receptor-related 1 protein (Nurr1/NR4A2) is an orphan nuclear receptor (NR) that is considered to function without a canonical ligand-binding pocket (LBP). A crystal structure of the Nurr1 ligand-binding domain (LBD) revealed no physical space in the conserved region where other NRs with solvent accessible apo-protein LBPs bind synthetic and natural ligands. Using solution nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, hydrogen/deuterium exchange mass spectrometry, and molecular dynamics simulations, we show that the putative canonical Nurr1 LBP is dynamic with high solvent accessibility, exchanges between two or more conformations on the microsecond-to-millisecond timescale, and can expand from the collapsed crystallized conformation to allow binding of unsaturated fatty acids. These findings should stimulate future studies to probe the ligandability and druggability of Nurr1 for both endogenous and synthetic ligands, which could lead to new therapeutics for Nurr1-related diseases, including Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia.

Cooperative cobinding of synthetic and natural ligands to the nuclear receptor PPARγ.

Crystal structures of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) have revealed overlapping binding modes for synthetic and natural/endogenous ligands, indicating competition for the orthosteric pocket. Here we show that cobinding of a synthetic ligand to the orthosteric pocket can push natural and endogenous PPARγ ligands (fatty acids) out of the orthosteric pocket towards an alternate ligand-binding site near the functionally important omega (Ω)-loop. X-ray crystallography, NMR spectroscopy, all-atom molecular dynamics simulations, and mutagenesis coupled to quantitative biochemical functional and cellular assays reveal that synthetic ligand and fatty acid cobinding can form a 'ligand link' to the Ω-loop and synergistically affect the structure and function of PPARγ. These findings contribute to a growing body of evidence indicating ligand binding to nuclear receptors can be more complex than the classical one-for-one orthosteric exchange of a natural or endogenous ligand with a synthetic ligand.

A structural mechanism for directing corepressor-selective inverse agonism of PPARγ.

Small chemical modifications can have significant effects on ligand efficacy and receptor activity, but the underlying structural mechanisms can be difficult to predict from static crystal structures alone. Here we show how a simple phenyl-to-pyridyl substitution between two common covalent orthosteric ligands targeting peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) gamma converts a transcriptionally neutral antagonist (GW9662) into a repressive inverse agonist (T0070907) relative to basal cellular activity. X-ray crystallography, molecular dynamics simulations, and mutagenesis coupled to activity assays reveal a water-mediated hydrogen bond network linking the T0070907 pyridyl group to Arg288 that is essential for corepressor-selective inverse agonism. NMR spectroscopy reveals that PPARγ exchanges between two long-lived conformations when bound to T0070907 but not GW9662, including a conformation that prepopulates a corepressor-bound state, priming PPARγ for high affinity corepressor binding. Our findings demonstrate that ligand engagement of Arg288 may provide routes for developing corepressor-selective repressive PPARγ ligands.

Defining a conformational ensemble that directs activation of PPARγ.

The nuclear receptor ligand-binding domain (LBD) is a highly dynamic entity. Crystal structures have defined multiple low-energy LBD structural conformations of the activation function-2 (AF-2) co-regulator-binding surface, yet it remains unclear how ligand binding influences the number and population of conformations within the AF-2 structural ensemble. Here, we present a nuclear receptor co-regulator-binding surface structural ensemble in solution, viewed through the lens of fluorine-19 (19F) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and molecular simulations, and the response of this ensemble to ligands, co-regulator peptides and heterodimerization. We correlate the composition of this ensemble with function in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPARγ) utilizing ligands of diverse efficacy in co-regulator recruitment. While the co-regulator surface of apo PPARγ and partial-agonist-bound PPARγ is characterized by multiple thermodynamically accessible conformations, the full and inverse-agonist-bound PPARγ co-regulator surface is restricted to a few conformations which favor coactivator or corepressor binding, respectively.

Synergistic Regulation of Coregulator/Nuclear Receptor Interaction by Ligand and DNA.

Nuclear receptor (NR) transcription factors bind various coreceptors, small-molecule ligands, DNA response element sequences, and transcriptional coregulator proteins to affect gene transcription. Small-molecule ligands and DNA are known to influence receptor structure, coregulator protein interaction, and function; however, little is known on the mechanism of synergy between ligand and DNA. Using quantitative biochemical, biophysical, and solution structural methods, including 13C-detected nuclear magnetic resonance and hydrogen/deuterium exchange (HDX) mass spectrometry, we show that ligand and DNA cooperatively recruit the intrinsically disordered steroid receptor coactivator-2 (SRC-2/TIF2/GRIP1/NCoA-2) receptor interaction domain to peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma-retinoid X receptor alpha (PPARγ-RXRα) heterodimer and reveal the binding determinants of the complex. Our data reveal a thermodynamic mechanism by which DNA binding propagates a conformational change in PPARγ-RXRα, stabilizes the receptor ligand binding domain dimer interface, and impacts ligand potency and cooperativity in NR coactivator recruitment.

Probing the Complex Binding Modes of the PPARγ Partial Agonist 2-Chloro-N-(3-chloro-4-((5-chlorobenzo[d]thiazol-2-yl)thio)phenyl)-4-(trifluoromethyl)benzenesulfonamide (T2384) to Orthosteric and Allosteric Sites with NMR Spectroscopy.

In a previous study, a cocrystal structure of PPARγ bound to 2-chloro-N-(3-chloro-4-((5-chlorobenzo[d]thiazol-2-yl)thio)phenyl)-4-(trifluoromethyl)benzenesulfonamide (1, T2384) revealed two orthosteric pocket binding modes attributed to a concentration-dependent biochemical activity profile. However, 1 also bound an alternate/allosteric site that could alternatively account for the profile. Here, we show ligand aggregation afflicts the activity profile of 1 in biochemical assays. However, ligand-observed fluorine (19F) and protein-observed NMR confirms 1 binds PPARγ with two orthosteric binding modes and to an allosteric site.

Deconvolution of Complex 1D NMR Spectra Using Objective Model Selection.

Fluorine (19F) NMR has emerged as a useful tool for characterization of slow dynamics in 19F-labeled proteins. One-dimensional (1D) 19F NMR spectra of proteins can be broad, irregular and complex, due to exchange of probe nuclei between distinct electrostatic environments; and therefore cannot be deconvoluted and analyzed in an objective way using currently available software. We have developed a Python-based deconvolution program, decon1d, which uses Bayesian information criteria (BIC) to objectively determine which model (number of peaks) would most likely produce the experimentally obtained data. The method also allows for fitting of intermediate exchange spectra, which is not supported by current software in the absence of a specific kinetic model. In current methods, determination of the deconvolution model best supported by the data is done manually through comparison of residual error values, which can be time consuming and requires model selection by the user. In contrast, the BIC method used by decond1d provides a quantitative method for model comparison that penalizes for model complexity helping to prevent over-fitting of the data and allows identification of the most parsimonious model. The decon1d program is freely available as a downloadable Python script at the project website (https://github.com/hughests/decon1d/).

Structural mechanism for signal transduction in RXR nuclear receptor heterodimers.

A subset of nuclear receptors (NRs) function as obligate heterodimers with retinoid X receptor (RXR), allowing integration of ligand-dependent signals across the dimer interface via an unknown structural mechanism. Using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, x-ray crystallography and hydrogen/deuterium exchange (HDX) mass spectrometry, here we show an allosteric mechanism through which RXR co-operates with a permissive dimer partner, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-γ, while rendered generally unresponsive by a non-permissive dimer partner, thyroid hormone (TR) receptor. Amino acid residues that mediate this allosteric mechanism comprise an evolutionarily conserved network discovered by statistical coupling analysis (SCA). This SCA network acts as a signalling rheostat to integrate signals between dimer partners, ligands and coregulator-binding sites, thereby affecting signal transmission in RXR heterodimers. These findings define rules guiding how NRs integrate two ligand-dependent signalling pathways into RXR heterodimer-specific responses.

Pharmacological repression of PPARγ promotes osteogenesis.

The nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) is the master regulator of adipogenesis and the pharmacological target of the thiazolidinedione (TZD) class of insulin sensitizers. Activation of PPARγ by TZDs promotes adipogenesis at the expense of osteoblast formation, contributing to their associated adverse effects on bone. Recently, we reported the development of PPARγ antagonist SR1664, designed to block the obesity-induced phosphorylation of serine 273 (S273) in the absence of classical agonism, to derive insulin-sensitizing efficacy with improved therapeutic index. Here we identify the structural mechanism by which SR1664 actively antagonizes PPARγ, and extend these findings to develop the inverse agonist SR2595. Treatment of isolated bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells with SR2595 promotes induction of osteogenic differentiation. Together these results identify the structural determinants of ligand-mediated PPARγ repression, and suggest a therapeutic approach to promote bone formation.

Resveratrol modulates the inflammatory response via an estrogen receptor-signal integration network.

Resveratrol has beneficial effects on aging, inflammation and metabolism, which are thought to result from activation of the lysine deacetylase, sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), the cAMP pathway, or AMP-activated protein kinase. In this study, we report that resveratrol acts as a pathway-selective estrogen receptor-α (ERα) ligand to modulate the inflammatory response but not cell proliferation. A crystal structure of the ERα ligand-binding domain (LBD) as a complex with resveratrol revealed a unique perturbation of the coactivator-binding surface, consistent with an altered coregulator recruitment profile. Gene expression analyses revealed significant overlap of TNFα genes modulated by resveratrol and estradiol. Furthermore, the ability of resveratrol to suppress interleukin-6 transcription was shown to require ERα and several ERα coregulators, suggesting that ERα functions as a primary conduit for resveratrol activity.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.02057.001.

An alternate binding site for PPARγ ligands.

PPARγ is a target for insulin-sensitizing drugs such as glitazones, which improve plasma glucose maintenance in patients with diabetes. Synthetic ligands have been designed to mimic endogenous ligand binding to a canonical ligand-binding pocket to hyperactivate PPARγ. Here we reveal that synthetic PPARγ ligands also bind to an alternate site, leading to unique receptor conformational changes that impact coregulator binding, transactivation and target gene expression. Using structure-function studies we show that alternate site binding occurs at pharmacologically relevant ligand concentrations, and is neither blocked by covalently bound synthetic antagonists nor by endogenous ligands indicating non-overlapping binding with the canonical pocket. Alternate site binding likely contributes to PPARγ hyperactivation in vivo, perhaps explaining why PPARγ full and partial or weak agonists display similar adverse effects. These findings expand our understanding of PPARγ activation by ligands and suggest that allosteric modulators could be designed to fine tune PPARγ activity without competing with endogenous ligands.

Ligand and receptor dynamics contribute to the mechanism of graded PPARγ agonism.

Ligand binding to proteins is not a static process, but rather involves a number of complex dynamic transitions. A flexible ligand can change conformation upon binding its target. The conformation and dynamics of a protein can change to facilitate ligand binding. The conformation of the ligand, however, is generally presumed to have one primary binding mode, shifting the protein conformational ensemble from one state to another. We report solution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) studies that reveal peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) modulators can sample multiple binding modes manifesting in multiple receptor conformations in slow conformational exchange. Our NMR, hydrogen/deuterium exchange and docking studies reveal that ligand-induced receptor stabilization and binding mode occupancy correlate with the graded agonist response of the ligand. Our results suggest that ligand and receptor dynamics affect the graded transcriptional output of PPARγ modulators.