Hemodynamic Characterization of Neonates With Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia-Associated Pulmonary Hypertension by Cardiac Catheterization.

We examined the results of cardiac catheterization in infants with congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) from 2009 to 2020. Catheterization confirmed pulmonary arterial hypertension in all cases (n =  17) and identified left ventricular (LV) diastolic dysfunction (LVDD) in 53%. LVDD was associated with greater respiratory morbidity. Preprocedural noninvasive assessment showed inconsistent agreement with catheterization results.

Measurement of Physical Activity by Actigraphy in Infants and Young Children with Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the feasibility, tolerability, and adherence with wearable actigraphy devices among infants and children with pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). STUDY DESIGN: This multicenter, prospective, observational study included children ages 0-6 years with and without PAH. Participants wore the ActiGraph wGT3X-BT on the hip and FitBit Inspire on the wrist during waking hours for 14 days. Steps, vector magnitude counts per minute, activity intensity, heart rate, and heart rate variability were compared between groups. RESULTS: Forty-seven participants (18 PAH, 29 control) were enrolled from 10 North American sites. PAH patients were mostly functional class II (n = 16, 89%) and treated with oral medications at the time of enrollment. The number of wear days was not significantly different between the groups (ActiGraph: 10 [95% CI: 5.5, 12.2] in PAH vs 8 [4, 12] in control, P = .20; FitBit 13 [10, 13.8] in PAH vs 12 [8, 14] in control, P = .87). Complete data were obtained in 81% of eligible ActiGraph participants and 72% of FitBit participants. PAH participants demonstrated fewer steps, lower vector magnitude counts per minute, more sedentary activity, and less intense physical activity at all levels compared with control participants. No statistically significant differences in heart rate variability were demonstrated between the 2 groups. CONCLUSIONS: Measurement of physical activity and other end points using wearable actigraphy devices was feasible in young children with PAH. Larger studies should determine associations between physical activity and disease severity in young patients with PAH to identify relevant end points for pediatric clinical trials.

Pulmonary Hypertension in Children with Down Syndrome: Results from the Pediatric Pulmonary Hypertension Network Registry.

OBJECTIVE: To characterize distinct comorbidities, outcomes, and treatment patterns in children with Down syndrome and pulmonary hypertension in a large, multicenter pediatric pulmonary hypertension registry. STUDY DESIGN: We analyzed data from the Pediatric Pulmonary Hypertension Network (PPHNet) Registry, comparing demographic and clinical characteristics of children with Down syndrome and children without Down syndrome. We examined factors associated with pulmonary hypertension resolution and a composite outcome of pulmonary hypertension severity in the cohort with Down syndrome. RESULTS: Of 1475 pediatric patients with pulmonary hypertension, 158 (11%) had Down syndrome. The median age at diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension in patients with Down syndrome was 0.49 year (IQR, 0.21-1.77 years), similar to that in patients without Down syndrome. There was no difference in rates of cardiac catheterization and prescribed pulmonary hypertension medications in children with Down syndrome and those without Down syndrome. Comorbidities in Down syndrome included congenital heart disease (95%; repaired in 68%), sleep apnea (56%), prematurity (49%), recurrent respiratory exacerbations (35%), gastroesophageal reflux (38%), and aspiration (31%). Pulmonary hypertension resolved in 43% after 3 years, associated with a diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension at age <6 months (54% vs 29%; P = .002) and a pretricuspid shunt (65% vs 38%; P = .02). Five-year transplantation-free survival was 88% (95% CI, 80%-97%). Tracheostomy (hazard ratio [HR], 3.29; 95% CI, 1.61-6.69) and reflux medication use (HR, 2.08; 95% CI, 1.11-3.90) were independently associated with a composite outcome of severe pulmonary hypertension. CONCLUSIONS: Despite high rates of cardiac and respiratory comorbidities that influence the severity of pulmonary hypertension, children with Down syndrome-associated pulmonary hypertension generally have a survival rate similar to that of children with non-Down syndrome-associated pulmonary hypertension. Resolution of pulmonary hypertension is common but reduced in children with complicated respiratory comorbidities.

Abnormal flow conduction through pulmonary arteries is associated with right ventricular volume and function in patients with repaired tetralogy of Fallot: does flow quality affect afterload?

OBJECTIVES: Flow through the proximal pulmonary arteries (PAs) of patients with repaired Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF) is known to be highly disordered and associated with significant regurgitation. The purpose of this study was to evaluate 4D-Flow MRI-derived viscous energy loss [Formula: see text])-as a result of non-efficient flow propagation, and relate this parameter to standard right ventricular (RV) size and function markers in patients with repaired TOF. METHODS: Thirty-five patients with TOF and 14 controls underwent comprehensive 4D-Flow MRI evaluation for qualitative flow analysis and to calculate [Formula: see text] in the main and right pulmonary arteries. Sampled [Formula: see text] indices were correlated with the MRI-derived RV size and functional indices. RESULTS: All patients with TOF exhibited abnormal, supra-physiologic helical/vortical formations in the PAs. Patients with TOF had significantly increased peak systolic [Formula: see text] (8.0 vs 0.5 mW, p < 0.001), time-averaged [Formula: see text] (2.5 vs. 0.2 mW, p < 0.001), and peak systolic [Formula: see text] indexed to stroke volume (0.082 vs. 0.012 mW/mL, p < 0.001). [Formula: see text] indexed to stroke volume correlated with the RV end-diastolic volume (R = 0.68, p < 0.001), end-systolic volume (R = 0.62, p < 0.001), ejection fraction (R = -0.45, p = 0.002), and cardiac index (R = 0.45, p = 0.002). The mean estimated energy loss due to [Formula: see text] with regard to input RV mechanical power was 4.7%. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates that patients with repaired TOF have highly abnormal flow conduction through the PAs which result into extensive viscous energy loss. This significant flow-mediated energy loss is associated with the RV volume and function, and might represent considerable loss of mechanical power generated by each cardiac cycle. Future studies are required to assess whether the abnormal flow conduction adds to the RV afterload and remodeling. KEY POINTS: • Abnormal flow patterns through proximal pulmonary arteries in patients with TOF are associated with excessive viscous energy loss. • Inefficient flow conduction is associated with the RV dilation and reduced function and might contribute to the RV adaptive remodeling.

Ventricular global function index is associated with clinical outcomes in pediatric pulmonary hypertension.

BACKGROUND: Multiple right ventricular (RV) metrics have prognostic value in pulmonary hypertension (PH). A cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) derived global ventricular function index (GFI) provided improved prediction of composite adverse outcome (CAO) in adults with atherosclerosis. GFI has not yet been explored in a PH population. We explored the feasibility of GFI as a predictor of CAO in a pediatric PH population. METHODS: Two center retrospective chart review identified pediatric PH patients undergoing CMR from Jan 2005-June 2021. GFI, defined as the ratio of the stroke volume to the sum of mean ventricular cavity and myocardial volume, was calculated for each patient. CAO was defined as death, lung transplant, Potts shunt, or parenteral prostacyclin initiation after CMR. Cox proportional hazards regression was used to estimate associations and assess model performance between CMR parameters and CAO. RESULTS: The cohort comprised 89 patients (54% female, 84% World Health Organization (WHO) Group 1; 70% WHO-FC ≤ 2; and 27% on parenteral prostacyclin). Median age at CMR was 12 years (IQR 8.1-17). Twenty-one (24%) patients experienced CAO during median follow up of 1.5 years. CAO cohort had higher indexed RV volumes (end systolic-145 vs 99 mL/m2, p = 0.003; end diastolic-89 vs 46 mL/m2, p = 0.004) and mass (37 vs 24 gm/m2, p = 0.003), but lower ejection fraction (EF) (42 vs 51%, p < 0.001) and GFI (40 vs 52%, p < 0.001). Higher indexed RV volumes (hazard ratios [HR] 1.01, CI 1.01-1.02), lower RV EF (HR 1.09, CI 1.05-1.12) and lower RV GFI (HR 1.09, CI 1.05-1.11) were associated with increased risk of CAO. In survival analysis, patients with RV GFI < 43% demonstrated decreased event-free survival and increased hazard of CAO compared to those with RV GFI ≥ 43%. In multivariable models, inclusion of GFI provided improved prediction of CAO compared to models incorporating ventricular volumes, mass or EF. CONCLUSIONS: RV GFI was associated with CAO in this cohort, and inclusion in multivariable models had increased predictive value compared to RVEF. GFI uses readily available CMR data without additional post-processing and may provide additional prognostic value in pediatric PH patients beyond traditional CMR markers.

Computed tomographic parenchymal lung findings in premature infants with pulmonary vein stenosis.

BACKGROUND: Developmental pulmonary vein pulmonary vein stenosis in the setting of prematurity is a rare and poorly understood condition. Diagnosis can be challenging in the setting of chronic lung disease of prematurity. High-resolution non-contrast chest computed tomography (CT) is the conventional method of evaluating neonates for potential structural changes contributing to severe lung dysfunction and pulmonary hypertension but may miss pulmonary venous stenosis due to the absence of contrast and potential overlap in findings between developmental pulmonary vein pulmonary vein stenosis and lung disease of prematurity. OBJECTIVE: To describe the parenchymal changes of pediatric patients with both prematurity and pulmonary vein stenosis, correlate them with venous disease and to describe the phenotypes associated with this disease. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A 5-year retrospective review of chest CT angiography (CTA) imaging in patients with catheterization-confirmed pulmonary vein stenosis was performed to identify pediatric patients (< 18 years) who had a history of prematurity (< 35 weeks gestation). Demographic and clinical data associated with each patient were collected, and the patients' CTAs were re-reviewed to evaluate pulmonary veins and parenchyma. Patients with post-operative pulmonary vein stenosis and those with congenital heart disease were excluded. Data was analyzed and correlated for descriptive purposes. RESULTS: A total of 17 patients met the inclusion criteria (12 female, 5 male). All had pulmonary hypertension. There was no correlation between mild, moderate, and severe grades of bronchopulmonary dysplasia and the degree of pulmonary vein stenosis. There was a median of 2 (range 1-4) diseased pulmonary veins per patient. In total, 41% of the diseased pulmonary veins were atretic. The right upper and left upper lobe pulmonary veins were the most frequently diseased (n = 13/17, 35%, n = 10/17, 27%, respectively). Focal ground glass opacification, interlobular septal thickening, and hilar soft tissue enlargement were always associated with the atresia of an ipsilateral vein. CONCLUSION: Recognition of the focal parenchymal changes that imply pulmonary vein stenosis, rather than chronic lung disease of prematurity changes, may improve the detection of a potentially treatable source of pulmonary hypertension, particularly where nonangiographic studies result in a limited direct venous assessment.

Biomarkers of Pulmonary Hypertension Are Altered in Children with Down Syndrome and Pulmonary Hypertension.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the performance of pulmonary hypertension (PH) biomarkers in children with Down syndrome, an independent risk factor for PH, in whom biomarker performance may differ compared with other populations. STUDY DESIGN: Serum endostatin, interleukin (IL)-1 receptor 1 (ST2), galectin-3, N-terminal pro hormone B-natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP), IL-6, and hepatoma-derived growth factor (HDGF) were measured in subjects with Down syndrome and PH (n = 29), subjects with Down syndrome and resolved PH (n = 13), subjects with Down syndrome without PH (n = 49), and subjects without Down syndrome with World Symposium on Pulmonary Hypertension group I pulmonary arterial hypertension (no Down syndrome PH group; n = 173). Each biomarker was assessed to discriminate PH in Down syndrome. A classification tree was created to distinguish PH from resolved PH and no PH in children with Down syndrome. RESULTS: Endostatin, galectin-3, HDGF, and ST2 were elevated in subjects with Down syndrome regardless of PH status. Not all markers differed between subjects with Down syndrome and PH and subjects with Down syndrome and resolved PH. NT-proBNP and IL-6 levels were similar in the Down syndrome with PH group and the no Down syndrome PH group. A classification tree identified NT-proBNP and galectin-3 as the best markers for sequentially distinguishing PH, resolved PH, and no PH in subjects with Down syndrome. CONCLUSIONS: Proteomic markers are used to improve the diagnosis and prognosis of PH but, as demonstrated here, can be altered in genetically unique populations such as individuals with Down syndrome. This further suggests that clinical biomarkers should be evaluated in unique groups with the development of population-specific nomograms.

Metalloproteinases and their inhibitors are associated with pulmonary arterial stiffness and ventricular function in pediatric pulmonary hypertension.

Disturbed balance between matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their respective tissue inhibitors (TIMPs) is a well-recognized pathophysiological component of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). Both classes of proteinases have been associated with clinical outcomes as well as with specific pathological features of ventricular dysfunction and pulmonary arterial remodeling. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the circulating levels of MMPs and TIMPs in children with PAH undergoing the same-day cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and right heart catheterization. Children with PAH (n = 21) underwent a same-day catheterization, comprehensive cardiac MRI evaluation, and blood sample collection for proteomic analysis. Correlative analysis was performed between protein levels and 1) standard PAH indices from catheterization, 2) cardiac MRI hemodynamics, and 3) pulmonary arterial stiffness. MMP-8 was significantly associated with the right ventricular end-diastolic volume (R = 0.45, P = 0.04). MMP-9 levels were significantly associated with stroke volume (R = -0.49, P = 0.03) and pulmonary vascular resistance (R = 0.49, P = 0.03). MMP-9 was further associated with main pulmonary arterial stiffness evaluated by relative area change (R = -0.79, P < 0.01).TIMP-2 and TIMP-4 levels were further associated with the right pulmonary artery pulse wave velocity (R = 0.51, P = 0.03) and backward compression wave (R = 0.52, P = 0.02), respectively. MMPs and TIMPs warrant further clinically prognostic evaluation in conjunction with the conventional cardiac MRI hemodynamic indices.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Metalloproteinases have been associated with clinical outcomes in pulmonary hypertension and with specific pathological features of ventricular dysfunction and pulmonary arterial remodeling. In this study, we demonstrated that plasma circulating levels of metalloproteinases and their inhibitors are associated with standard cardiac MRI hemodynamic indices and with the markers of proximal pulmonary arterial stiffness. Particularly, MMP-9 and TIMP-2 were associated with several different markers of pulmonary arterial stiffness. These findings suggest the interplay between the extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling and overall hemodynamic status in children with PAH might be assessed using the peripheral circulating MMP and TIMP levels.

Flow profile characteristics in Fontan circulation are associated with the single ventricle dilation and function: principal component analysis study.

The Fontan circulation is characterized as a nonpulsatile flow propagation without a pressure-generating ventricle. However, flow through the Fontan circulation still exhibits oscillatory waves as a result of pressure changes generated by the systemic single ventricle. Identification of discrete flow patterns through the Fontan circuit may be important to understand single ventricle performance. Ninety-seven patients with Fontan circulation underwent phase-contrast MRI of the right pulmonary artery, yielding subject-specific flow waveforms. Principal component (PC) analysis was performed on preprocessed flow waveforms. Principal components were then correlated with standard MRI indices of function, volume, and aortopulmonary collateral flow. The first principal component (PC) described systolic versus diastolic-dominant flow through the Fontan circulation, accounting for 31.3% of the variance in all waveforms. The first PC correlated with end-diastolic volume (R = 0.34, P = 0.001), and end-systolic volume (R = 0.30, P = 0.003), cardiac index (R = 0.51, P < 0.001), and the amount of aortopulmonary collateral flow (R = 0.25, P = 0.027)-lower ventricular volumes and a smaller volume of collateral flow-were associated with diastolic-dominant cavopulmonary flow. The second PC accounted for 19.5% of variance and described late diastolic acceleration versus deceleration and correlated with ejection fraction-diastolic deceleration was associated with higher ejection fraction. Principal components describing the diastolic flow variations in pulmonary arteries are related to the single ventricle function and volumes. Particularly, diastolic-dominant flow without late acceleration appears to be related to preserved ventricular volume and function, respectively.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The exact physiological significance of flow oscillations of phasic and temporal flow variations in Fontan circulation is unknown. With the use of principal component analysis, we discovered that flow variations in the right pulmonary artery of Fontan patients are related to the single ventricle function and volumes. Particularly, diastolic-dominant flow without late acceleration appears to be related to more ideal ventricular volume and systolic function, respectively.

Novel measures of left ventricular electromechanical discoordination predict clinical outcomes in children with pulmonary arterial hypertension.

Adverse ventricle-ventricle interaction and resultant left ventricular (LV) dysfunction are a recognized pathophysiological component of disease progression in pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) and can be associated with electrical and mechanical dyssynchrony. The purpose of this study was to investigate the clinical and mechanistic implications of LV electromechanical dyssynchrony in children with PAH by using novel systolic stretch and diastolic relaxation discoordination indexes derived noninvasively from cardiac MRI (CMR). In children with PAH referred for CMR (n = 64) and healthy controls (n = 20), we calculated two novel markers of ventricular discoordination, systolic stretch fraction (SSF) and diastolic relaxation fraction (DRF). SSF and DRF were evaluated with respect to 1) electrical dyssynchrony, 2) functional status, and 3) composite clinical outcomes. SSF was increased in patients with PAH compared with controls (P = 0.004). There was no difference in DRF between PAH and control groups. There were no differences between groups in standard mechanical dyssynchrony and LV global circumferential strain. Increased SSF was associated with greater electrical dyssynchrony (QRS duration) as well as worse WHO functional class. SSF, DRF, mechanical dyssynchrony, and right ventricular (RV) volumes were prognostic for worse clinical outcomes. LV dyssynchrony indexes are altered in pediatric patients with PAH compared with controls in proportion with greater degrees of RV dilation. Patients with PAH with greater dyssynchrony have worse clinical outcomes. RV-induced increased LV electromechanical dyssynchrony therefore may be an important link in the causal pathway from PAH to clinically significant LV dysfunction. Since dyssynchrony could precede overt LV dysfunction, addition of ventricular synchrony analysis to CMR postprocessing protocols may be of clinical benefit.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We demonstrate that left ventricular discoordination indexes are altered in pediatric patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension compared with controls and pediatric patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension with greater dyssynchrony have worse clinical outcomes. Furthermore, there is evidence for the mechanism of right ventricular-induced left ventricular discoordination to include a combination of delayed early systolic electromechanical activation, late-systolic septal shift, and prolonged, postsystolic septal thickening.

Elevated Interleukin-6 Levels Predict Clinical Worsening in Pediatric Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension.

OBJECTIVE: To assess whether circulating interleukin-6 (IL-6) is associated with measures of disease severity and clinical worsening in pediatric pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). STUDY DESIGN: IL-6 was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in serum samples from a cross-sectional cohort from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension Biobank (n = 175) and a longitudinal cohort from Children's Hospital Colorado (CHC) (n = 61). Associations between IL-6, disease severity, and outcomes were studied with regression and Kaplan-Meier analysis. RESULTS: In analyses adjusted for age and sex, each log-unit greater IL-6 was significantly associated in the Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension Biobank cohort with greater pulmonary vascular resistance indices, lower odds of having idiopathic PAH or treatment with prostacyclin, and greater odds of having PAH associated with a repaired congenital shunt. In the CHC cohort, each log-unit greater IL-6 was significantly associated with greater mean pulmonary arterial pressure over time. Kaplan-Meier analysis in the CHC cohort revealed that IL-6 was significantly associated with clinical worsening (a composite score of mortality, transplant, or palliative surgery) (P = .037). CONCLUSIONS: IL-6 was significantly associated with worse hemodynamics at baseline and over time and may be associated with clinical worsening. IL-6 may provide a less-invasive method for disease monitoring and prognosis in pediatric PAH as well as a potential therapeutic target.

Pharmacokinetics of Oral Treprostinil in Children With Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension.

As part of a clinical trial, this study examined the pharmacokinetics (PK) of oral treprostinil (TRE) in children with pulmonary arterial hypertension. The trial consisted of the following 3 cohorts: transition from parenteral (cohort 1) or inhaled (cohort 2) TRE, or de novo addition (cohort 3). Oral TRE was dosed 3 times daily. PK samples were obtained before an oral TRE dose, and at 2, 4, 6, and 8 hours thereafter. The PK parameters were calculated using noncompartmental analysis. Thirty-two children (n = 10 in cohorts 1 and 2, n = 12 in cohort 3) were enrolled; the median age was 12 years (range 7-17 years), and the median weight was 42.2 kg (range 19.3-78 kg). The median oral TRE dose for all subjects was 3.8 mg (5.9, 3.5, and 4.0 mg for cohorts 1, 2, and 3, respectively). The TRE concentration versus time profile demonstrated a peak concentration at a median of 3.8 hours with wide variability. In cohort 1, oral dosing led to higher peak (5.9 ng/mL) and lower trough (1 ng/mL) concentrations than parenteral (peak 5.4 ng/mL and trough 4.2 ng/mL), but a lower mean concentration (3.61 vs. 4.46 ng/mL), likely due to variable metabolism and noncomparable dosing. Both the area under the curve and average concentration were linearly correlated with oral TRE dose and dose normalized to body weight, but not with weight or age alone. In pediatric patients, an increased oral TRE dose or dose frequency may be required to minimize PK variability and achieve greater correlation with parenteral dosing.

Differences in pulmonary arterial flow hemodynamics between children and adults with pulmonary arterial hypertension as assessed by 4D-flow CMR studies.

Despite different developmental and pathological processes affecting lung vascular remodeling in both patient populations, differences in 4D MRI findings between children and adults with PAH have not been studied. The purpose of this study was to compare flow hemodynamic state, including flow-mediated shear forces, between pediatric and adult patients with PAH matched by severity of pulmonary vascular resistance index (PVRi). Adults (n = 10) and children (n = 10) with PAH matched by pulmonary vascular resistance index (PVRi) and healthy adult (n = 10) and pediatric (n = 10) subjects underwent comprehensive 4D-flow MRI to assess peak systolic wall shear stress (WSSmax) measured in the main (MPA), right (RPA), and left pulmonary arteries (LPA), viscous energy loss (EL) along the MPA-RPA and MPA-LPA tract, and qualitative analysis of secondary flow hemodynamics. WSSmax was decreased in all pulmonary vessels in children with PAH when compared with the same age group (all P < 0.05). Similarly, WSSmax was decreased in all pulmonary vessels in adult PAH patients when compared with healthy adult subjects (all P < 0.01). Average EL was increased in adult patients with PAH when compared with the same age group along both MPA-RPA (P = 0.020) and MPA-LPA (P = 0.025) tracts. There were no differences in EL indices between adults and pediatric patients. Children and adult patients with PAH have decreased shear hemodynamic forces. However, pathological flow hemodynamic formations appear to be more consistent in adult patients, whereas flow hemodynamic abnormalities appear to be more variable in children with PAH for comparable severity of PVRi. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Both children and adult patients with PAH have decreased shear hemodynamic forces inside the pulmonary arteries associated with the degree of vessel dilation and stiffness. These differences also exist between healthy normotensive children and adults. However, pathological flow hemodynamic formations appear to more uniform in adult patients, whereas in children with PAH flow, hemodynamic abnormalities appear to be more variable. Pathological flow formations appear not to have a major effect on viscous energy loss associated with the flow conduction through proximal pulmonary arteries.

Paediatric pulmonary arterial hypertension: updates on definition, classification, diagnostics and management.

Paediatric pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) shares common features of adult disease, but is associated with several additional disorders and challenges that require unique approaches. This article discusses recent advances, ongoing challenges and distinct approaches for the care of children with PAH, as presented by the Paediatric Task Force of the 6th World Symposium on Pulmonary Hypertension. We provide updates of the current definition, epidemiology, classification, diagnostics and treatment of paediatric PAH, and identify critical knowledge gaps. Several features of paediatric PAH including the prominence of neonatal PAH, especially in pre-term infants with developmental lung diseases, and novel genetic causes of paediatric PAH are highlighted. The use of cardiac catheterisation as a diagnostic modality and haemodynamic definitions of PAH, including acute vasoreactivity, are addressed. Updates are provided on issues related to utility of the previous classification system to reflect paediatric-specific aetiologies and approaches to medical and interventional management of PAH, including the Potts shunt. Although a lack of clinical trial data for the use of PAH-targeted therapy persists, emerging data are improving the identification of appropriate targets for goal-oriented therapy in children. Such data will likely improve future clinical trial design to enhance outcomes in paediatric PAH.

Acute Vasoreactivity Testing during Cardiac Catheterization of Neonates with Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia-Associated Pulmonary Hypertension.

OBJECTIVES: To assess whether better baseline pulmonary hemodynamics or positive acute vasoreactivity testing (AVT) during cardiac catheterization are associated with improved outcomes in infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) and pulmonary hypertension (PH). STUDY DESIGN: This retrospective, single-center study included 26 premature neonates with BPD who underwent catheterization to evaluate PH. AVT was assessed with exposure to 100% fractional inspired oxygen with or without inhaled nitric oxide. AVT was positive if the patient met the Barst criteria or increased shunt volume and decreased pulmonary vascular resistance index by >50%. RESULTS: At baseline, the median pulmonary artery mean pressure was 29 mm Hg (IQR, 24-35) and the pulmonary vascular resistance index was 5.3 units*m2 (IQR, 3.5-6.9). Nine patients (35%) had a positive AVT response, which was associated with a decreased risk of death or tracheostomy by 2-year follow-up (hazard ratio, 0.15; P = .02). Baseline pulmonary hemodynamics and the presence of left ventricular diastolic dysfunction were not associated with late outcomes in this cohort. CONCLUSIONS: We found that 35% of infants with BPD who underwent catheterization had positive AVT and that a positive response was associated with better long-term outcomes than nonresponders. AVT better distinguishes higher from lower risk PH in infants with BPD than baseline pulmonary hemodynamics. AVT may aid in the assessment of disease severity and management of BPD-associated PH.

High Altitude Pulmonary Edema in Children: A Single Referral Center Evaluation.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the clinical features of children who presented to Children's Hospital Colorado (CHCO) with high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE). STUDY DESIGN: We performed a retrospective chart review in children discharged from CHCO (an elevation of 1668 m) with a clinical diagnosis of HAPE and a chest radiograph consistent with noncardiogenic pulmonary edema. Descriptive statistics were used to describe the demographics, presentations, and treatment strategies. RESULTS: From 2004 to 2014, 50 children presented to CHCO who were found to have a clinical diagnosis of HAPE and a chest radiograph consistent with noncardiogenic pulmonary edema. Most (72%) patients were male, and most (60%) of the children in the study were diagnosed with classic HAPE, 38% with re-entry HAPE, and 2% with high altitude resident pulmonary edema. Elevation at symptom presentation ranged from 1840 to 3536 m. Patients were treated with a variety of medications, including diuretics, steroids, and antibiotics. Four patients were newly diagnosed with structural heart findings: 2 patients with patent foramen ovale and 2 with atrial septal defects. Eleven patients had findings consistent with pulmonary hypertension at the time of echocardiography. CONCLUSIONS: HAPE symptoms may develop below 2500 m, so providers should not rule out HAPE based on elevation alone. Structural heart findings and pulmonary hypertension are associated with HAPE susceptibility and their presence may inform treatment. Inappropriate use of antibiotics and diuretics in children with HAPE suggest that further education of providers is warranted.

Noninvasive wave intensity analysis predicts functional worsening in children with pulmonary arterial hypertension.

The purpose of the present study was to characterize pulmonary vascular stiffness using wave intensity analysis (WIA) in children with pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), compare the WIA indexes with catheterization- and MRI-derived hemodynamics, and assess the prognostic ability of WIA-derived biomarkers to predict the functional worsening. WIA was performed in children with PAH ( n = 40) and healthy control subjects ( n = 15) from phase-contrast MRI-derived flow and area waveforms in the main pulmonary artery (MPA). From comprehensive WIA spectra, we collected and compared with healthy control subjects forward compression waves (FCW), backward compression waves (BCW), forward decompression waves (FDW), and wave propagation speed ( c-MPA). There was no difference in the magnitude of FCW between PAH and control groups (88 vs. 108 mm5·s-1·ml-1, P = 0.239). The magnitude of BCW was increased in patients with PAH (32 vs. 5 mm5·s-1·ml-1, P < 0.001). There was no difference in magnitude of indexed FDW (32 vs. 28 mm5·s-1·ml-1, P = 0.856). c-MPA was increased in patients with PAH (3.2 vs. 1.6 m/s, P < 0.001). BCW and FCW correlated with mean pulmonary arterial pressure, right ventricular volumes, and ejection fraction. Elevated indexed BCW [heart rate (HR) = 2.91, confidence interval (CI): 1.18-7.55, P = 0.019], reduced indexed FDW (HR = 0.34, CI: 0.11-0.90, P = 0.030), and increased c-MPA (HR = 3.67, CI: 1.47-10.20, P = 0.004) were strongly associated with functional worsening of disease severity. Our results suggest that noninvasively derived biomarkers of pulmonary vascular resistance and stiffness may be helpful for determining prognosis and monitoring disease progression in children with PAH. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Wave intensity analysis (WIA) studies are lacking in children with pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) partially because WIA, which is necessary to assess vascular stiffness, requires an invasive pressure-derived waveform along with simultaneous flow measurements. We analyzed vascular stiffness using WIA in children with PAH who underwent phase-contrast MRI and observed significant differences in WIA indexes between patients with PAH and control subjects. Furthermore, WIA indexes were predictive of functional worsening and were associated with standard catheterization measures.

Clinical Characteristics and Risk Factors for Developing Pulmonary Hypertension in Children with Down Syndrome.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the incidence, characteristics of, and risk factors contributing to the development of pulmonary hypertension in children with Down syndrome. STUDY DESIGN: This retrospective, review of a large cohort (n = 1242) of children with Down syndrome receiving care at a specialized referral center evaluated clinical data and serial echocardiograms from a clinic database and electronic medical records. Pulmonary hypertension characteristics and comorbidities were reviewed. Pulmonary hypertension was considered transient if echocardiographic evidence of pulmonary hypertension resolved without recurrence, persistent if no resolution, and recurrent if evidence of pulmonary hypertension returned after a period of resolution. RESULTS: The incidence of pulmonary hypertension in children with Down syndrome was 28% (n = 346). Median age at initial diagnosis was 5 days (range: 0-7067 days). Pulmonary hypertension was differentiated into transient (70%), persistent (15%), and recurrent (15%) disease. Median duration of transient pulmonary hypertension was 8 months (range: 0.1-130.2 months). Median age at recurrence was 2.5 years (range 0.2-11.5 years). Initial pulmonary hypertension diagnosis was classified as World Health Organization group I disease in 82%, with 45% associated with congenital heart disease (CHD), and 38% persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn (PPHN). The pulmonary hypertension recurrence rate was significant and similar for both those with initial PPHN (12%) and non-PPHN (16%). A majority (87%) of patients with recurrent pulmonary hypertension were classified as World Health Organization group III. Frequently identified comorbid conditions included CHD, obstructive sleep apnea, intermittent hypoxia, and recurrent pneumonia. CONCLUSIONS: Pulmonary hypertension is common in children with Down syndrome, is typically transient, and related to CHD or PPHN but can recur in the setting of respiratory disease such as obstructive sleep apnea, intermittent hypoxia, and recurrent pneumonia.

Children with kawasaki disease present elevated stiffness of great arteries: Phase-contrast MRI study.

BACKGROUND: Patients with diagnosed Kawasaki disease (KD) are known to develop extracardiac vascular lesions and are prone to accelerated stiffening of medium-size arteries. PURPOSE: To noninvasively evaluate great vessel (central aorta and main pulmonary artery (MPA)) stiffness using phase-contrast MRI (PC-MRI). STUDY TYPE: Retrospective review. SUBJECTS: Thirty-three patients with previously diagnosed KD and 15 control subjects underwent PC-MRI evaluation. FIELD STRENGTH/SEQUENCE: A free-breathing PC-MRI sequence was applied with Cartesian encoding and retrospective sorting using a 1.5 or 3.0T system. ASSESSMENT: We evaluated regionally specific vessel stiffness using pulse-wave velocity (PWV) and relative area change (RAC) at the ascending aorta, descending aorta, and MPA. STATISTICAL TESTS: Hemodynamics among patients with KD and controls were compared using Student's t-test, Wilcoxon Rank-sum, and χ2 . Additional group-specific comparisons were performed using Kruskal-Wallis or one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). RESULTS: Patients with KD showed elevated PWV in both ascending (5.0 ± 1.2 vs. 2.4 ± 0.5, P < 0.001) and descending aorta (4.4 ± 2.1 vs. 2.8 ± 0.8, P < 0.001). RAC was correspondingly reduced in both segments (both P < 0.01). PWV measured in MPA was increased in KD patients (2.2 ± 0.5 vs. 1.5 ± 0.6, P = 0.045) while the RAC was reduced (34 ± 6 vs. 47 ± 3, P = 0.045). There were no associations between considered vessel stiffness indices and respective ventricular size and function, functional indices, and no correlations were observed with KD severity markers. DATA CONCLUSION: Patients with KD have elevated great vessel stiffness measured at the chronic stage of the disease. Accelerated stiffness process does not appear to affect biventricular function in youth Level of Evidence: 1 Technical Efficacy: Stage 2 J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2018;47:1228-1236.

Right Ventricular Tissue Doppler Myocardial Performance Index in Children with Pulmonary Hypertension: Relation to Invasive Hemodynamics.

Right ventricular (RV) failure is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with pulmonary hypertension (PH). Myocardial performance index measured by tissue Doppler imaging (TDI-MPI) has been useful in assessing RV dysfunction in adults with PH. However, TDI-MPI as a marker for RV dysfunction or disease severity has not been evaluated in pediatric PH. The aim of this study was to investigate TDI-MPI and correlate with invasive hemodynamics in pediatric PH patients. Eighty pediatric PH patients undergoing cardiac catheterization and simultaneous transthoracic echocardiography were analyzed. RV TDI-MPI was averaged over three cardiac cycles and measured under each condition of vasodilatory testing during the catheterization. TDI-MPI was compared between PH patients and age-matched controls and correlated to invasive hemodynamics. RV TDI-MPI was increased in PH patients compared to controls (0.49 vs. 0.35, p < 0.0001). Significant associations (beta ± SE) are seen between RV TDI-MPI and baseline mean pulmonary arterial pressures (0.0002 ± 0.001, p < 0.05), indexed pulmonary vascular resistance (0.007 ± 0.002, p < 0.002), and pulmonary-to-systemic arterial pressure ratio (0.146 ± 0.063, p < 0.05). No statistically significant associations were seen with vasodilatory testing. RV TDI-MPI is elevated in children with PH, suggestive of RV dysfunction. RV TDI-MPI shows correlation with severity of PH at baseline but lacks sensitivity to evaluate the RV response to acute changes in afterload in children with PH. Therefore, while RV TDI-MPI can help identify RV dysfunction in children with PH, its utility as a non-invasive surrogate marker for acute changes in hemodynamics is limited.