Investigation of the environmental presence of Salmonella spp. in finishing pigs at commercial swine farms in Kansas (USA).

Salmonellosis remains a major foodborne disease threat to public health worldwide. Swine are considered a reservoir for many Salmonella serotypes affecting humans; however, not all serotypes of concern in food animal products cause clinical signs of infection in swine. The objective of this study was to evaluate the presence and distribution of Salmonella spp. in finishing pigs at commercial farms across Kansas (USA). Five farms were selected and sampled when pigs weighed between 125 and 136 kg. Samples were collected and transported to the laboratory for processing following USDA-FSIS guidelines. Susceptibility and resistance profiles were also studied. Fifty-three percent (100/186) of samples were culture positive for Enterobacteriaceae, and 14% (14/100) were confirmed Salmonella positive by PCR with three of five farms having no PCR-positive samples. Salmonella serotype Braenderup was the most common serovar identified in environmental samples, while Salm. Infantis, Agona, and Montevideo were identified in fecal samples. Multidrug resistance patterns were only found in Farm 3, in fecal samples and in one floor sample. The observations reported in this study highlight areas of concern, such as locations prone to fecal contamination, to be considered when cleaning and sanitizing between groups of pigs to decrease presence of Salmonella spp. in farm environments.

From campus to communities: evaluation of the first UK-based bystander programme for the prevention of domestic violence and abuse in general communities.

BACKGROUND: Violence against women and girls is a public health epidemic. Campus-based research has found bystander programmes show promise as effective primary prevention of sexual violence. However, evidence regarding domestic violence and abuse bystander prevention specifically, and in community settings generally, is still in development. Further, research has predominantly emanated from the US. Examining proof of concept in differing cultural contexts is required. This study evaluates the feasibility and potential for effectiveness of a domestic violence and abuse bystander intervention within UK general communities-Active Bystander Communities. METHODS: Participants recruited opportunistically attended a three-session programme facilitated by experts in the field. Programme feasibility was measured using participant attendance and feedback across nine learning objectives. Myth acceptance, bystander efficacy, behavioural intent and bystander behaviours were assessed using validated scales at baseline, post-intervention, and four-month follow-up. Results were examined for potential backlash. Analyses used a paired sample t-test and effect size was quantified with Cohen's d. RESULTS: 58/70 participants attended all programme sessions. Participant feedback consistently rated the programme highly and significant change (p ≤ 0·001) was observed in the desired direction across behavioural intent, bystander efficacy, and myth acceptance scores at post and follow-up. Effect size was generally large and, with the exception of Perception of Peer Myth Acceptance, improved at follow-up. Backlash was minimal. CONCLUSIONS: To our knowledge this is the first UK-based study to examine the potential of bystander intervention as a community-level intervention for domestic violence and abuse. Findings are promising and indicate the translatability of the bystander approach to domestic violence and abuse prevention as well as community contexts. This is likely to be of great interest to policymakers and may help shape future community-based interventions. Further research is now needed using experimental designs engaging diverse community audiences.

Infectious Dose of African Swine Fever Virus When Consumed Naturally in Liquid or Feed.

African swine fever virus (ASFV) is a contagious, rapidly spreading, transboundary animal disease and a major threat to pork production globally. Although plant-based feed has been identified as a potential route for virus introduction onto swine farms, little is known about the risks for ASFV transmission in feed. We aimed to determine the minimum and median infectious doses of the Georgia 2007 strain of ASFV through oral exposure during natural drinking and feeding behaviors. The minimum infectious dose of ASFV in liquid was 100 50% tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50), compared with 104 TCID50 in feed. The median infectious dose was 101.0 TCID50 for liquid and 106.8 TCID50 for feed. Our findings demonstrate that ASFV Georgia 2007 can easily be transmitted orally, although higher doses are required for infection in plant-based feed. These data provide important information that can be incorporated into risk models for ASFV transmission.

Seasonal Presence of Salmonella spp., Salmonella Typhimurium and Its Monophasic Variant Serotype I 4,[5],12:i:-, in Selected United States Swine Feed Mills.

This study evaluated the seasonal prevalence and distribution of Salmonella spp., Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (ST) and its monophasic variant 4,[5],12:i:- (STM), in selected swine feed mills across the United States. Eleven facilities were selected for this study and 12 sites were sampled within each mill during fall 2016, early spring 2017, and summer 2017. Samples were evaluated following the USDA-FSIS guidelines for Salmonella isolation and culture positive samples were analyzed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). A multiplex real-time PCR was used to differentiate ST and STM from other serotypes. Associations between season, mill, and sample site with Salmonella presence were investigated using generalized linear mixed models. Both season (p < 0.007) and mill (p < 0.005) were significantly associated with Salmonella spp. presence. Fall months were associated with a higher Salmonella prevalence (13.2%) compared with early spring and summer. A total of five isolates, among the 383 samples were serotyped as ST and STM. These two serotypes showed a similar seasonal presence throughout the study, being found during fall and summer seasons. These findings demonstrated the seasonal presence of Salmonella spp. in feed mills and the role of these environments as potential pathogen entry route into the human food chain.

Modeling the transboundary risk of feed ingredients contaminated with porcine epidemic diarrhea virus.

BACKGROUND: This study describes a model developed to evaluate the transboundary risk of PEDV-contaminated swine feed ingredients and the effect of two mitigation strategies during a simulated transport event from China to the US. RESULTS: Ingredients imported to the USA from China, including organic & conventional soybeans and meal, lysine hydrochloride, D-L methionine, tryptophan, Vitamins A, D & E, choline, carriers (rice hulls, corn cobs) and feed grade tetracycline, were inoculated with PEDV. Control ingredients, and treatments (ingredients plus a liquid antimicrobial (SalCURB, Kemin Industries (LA) or a 2% custom medium chain fatty acid blend (MCFA)) were tested. The model ran for 37 days, simulating transport of cargo from Beijing, China to Des Moines, IA, US from December 23, 2012 to January 28, 2013. To mimic conditions on land and sea, historical temperature and percent relative humidity (% RH) data were programmed into an environmental chamber which stored all containers. To evaluate PEDV viability over time, ingredients were organized into 1 of 4 batches of samples, each batch representing a specific segment of transport. Batch 1 (segment 1) simulated transport of contaminated ingredients from manufacturing plants in Beijing (day 1 post-contamination (PC)). Batch 2 (segments 1 and 2) simulated manufacturing and delivery to Shanghai, including time in Anquing terminal awaiting shipment (days 1-8 PC). Batch 3 (segments 1, 2 and 3) represented time in China, the crossing of the Pacific and entry to the US at the San Francisco, CA terminal (day 1-27 PC). Batch 4 (segments 1-4) represented the previous events, including transport to Des Moines, IA (days 1-37 PC). Across control (non-treated) ingredients, viable PEDV was detected in soybean meal (organic and conventional), Vitamin D, lysine hydrochloride and choline chloride. In contrast, viable PEDV was not detected in any samples treated with LA or MCFA. CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate the ability of PEDV to survive in a subset of feed ingredients using a model simulating shipment from China to the US. This is proof of concept suggesting that contaminated feed ingredients could serve as transboundary risk factors for PEDV, along with the identification of effective mitigation options.

Evaluation of a microencapsulated form of zinc oxide on weanling pig growth performance, fecal zinc excretion, and small intestinal morphology.

A total of 300 pigs (DNA 200 × 400; initially 6.0 ±â€…0.08 kg body weight [BW]) were used in a 42-d study to evaluate a microencapsulated form of zinc oxide. At weaning, pigs were randomly allocated to pens, and pens were randomly assigned to dietary treatments with 5 pigs per pen and 12 pens per treatment. Dietary treatments were 1) negative control (CON; standard nursery diet containing 110 ppm Zn in the form of zinc sulfate from trace mineral premix); 2) control diet with 400 ppm added Zn from ZnO included in phases 1 and 2 (Low-ZnO); 3) control diet with 3,000 ppm added Zn from ZnO included in phase 1 and 2,000 ppm added Zn from ZnO included in phase 2 (High-ZnO); 4) control diet with 400 ppm added Zn from microencapsulated ZnO included in phases 1 and 2 (Low-MZnO; Vetagro S.p.A., Reggio Emilia, Italy); 5) control diet with 3,000 ppm added Zn from microencapsulated ZnO in phase 1 and 2,000 ppm added Zn from microencapsulated ZnO in phase 2 (high-MZnO; Vetagro S.p.A., Reggio Emilia, Italy). On days 10 and 28, fecal samples from 2 pigs per pen were collected for fecal Zn concentrations, and on day 28, 30 pigs (n = 6) were euthanized, and small intestinal tissues were collected to evaluate morphology. For the entire treatment period (days 0 to 28) there was no evidence of differences in average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), or G:F (P > 0.05). During the common phase 3 (days 28 to 42) pigs fed the negative control, High-MZnO, or Low-MZnO had improved (P < 0.0001) ADG and ADFI compared to pigs fed High- or Low-ZnO. For the entire experiment (days 0 to 42), pigs fed Low-ZnO or High-ZnO had reduced (P < 0.0001) ADG compared to those fed the negative control. A significant treatment × day interaction (P = 0.04) was observed for fecal Zn concentrations, where the level of Zn excreted in the feces was dependent on the sampling day in pigs fed a low level of ZnO or low level of microencapsulated ZnO. There was no evidence (P > 0.05) that small intestinal morphology differed significantly between treatments. In summary, feeding a microencapsulated form of ZnO did not alter piglet growth performance during the treatment period. Pigs fed a low level of ZnO or microencapsulated ZnO had reduced fecal Zn excretion by the end of the feeding period, but no significant impacts were observed on piglet small intestinal morphology.

Postmanufacturing techniques for mitigation of viral pathogens in porcine-derived feed ingredients: a review.

African swine fever virus (ASFV) is a highly infectious virus known to cause substantial mortality and morbidity in pigs. The transmissibility and severity of disease within pigs, as well as the potentially resultant catastrophic trade ramifications, warrant its status as a foreign animal disease of substantial concern to the United States. The ASFV virus can survive for extended periods of time outside its host, and its greatest concentration is often observed in blood and organs, products that are frequently used as raw materials to manufacture porcine-derived ingredients fed to animals in the United States. Unlike ruminant-based proteins that cannot be fed to ruminant animals, it is permissible to feed porcine-derived ingredients to pigs in the United States. However, the increased threat of ASFV entry into the United States and our evolving understanding of viral transmission by feedstuffs warrant further investigation into this practice. The objectives of this review are to describe the current knowledge of ASFV survival in raw materials used to produce porcine-based ingredients, identify priorities for future research, and summarize potential options for managing risk until additional knowledge can be gained. While limited data is available for ASFV-specific mitigation, the temperatures used in both spray-drying and rendering have proven to effectively reduce viral concentrations of multiple swine viruses below detectable limits. However, some of these procedures may not eliminate the risk of recontamination, which necessitates the need for additional prevention or mitigation measures. Most published research in this area relies on direct inoculation of raw ingredient, not the finished porcine-derived ingredient. Currently, three published studies report ASFV mitigation in either thermally processed conditions (>40 °C) or ingredient quarantine (<40 °C). Virus inactivation, or the reduction of viral concentrations below detectable levels, was observed in the thermally processed study and one of the two ingredient quarantine studies. In conclusion, there is little knowledge to eliminate the risk of recontamination in porcine-derived ingredients; therefore, future research should aim to support and validate the currently available literature for the continued and safe production of porcine-derived ingredients in the event of a foreign animal disease outbreak.

Effect of the pelleting process on diet formulations with varying levels of crystalline amino acids and reducing sugars on digestibility in growing pigs.

The objective of this experiment was to determine the effects of pelleting on the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids (AA) and crude protein (CP) in diets with or without increased concentrations of free AA and reducing sugars (RS). Eight individually housed, ileal cannulated barrows (initially 31.4 kg) were allotted to an 8 × 8 Latin square with eight diets and eight 7-d periods with ileal digesta collected on days 6 and 7. Treatments were arranged in a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial with the main effects of diet form (mash or pellet), crystalline AA (low or high), or RS (low or high), provided by distillers dried grains with solubles and bakery meal. Diets were pelleted to achieve a hot pellet temperature of 85 to 88 °C. Data were analyzed as a Latin square design using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS 9.4. A feed form × RS interaction (P < 0.026) for SID of tryptophan was observed. Feeding pelleted low RS diets increased SID of tryptophan compared with mash high and low RS diets, and pelleted high RS diets. For the main effects of feed form, the SID of total AA, CP, and indispensable AA was greater (P < 0.042) in pelleted diets compared with mash diets. For the main effects of crystalline AA, pigs fed high crystalline AA had increased (P = 0.007) SID of tryptophan and decreased (P = 0.050) SID of histidine compared with those fed low crystalline AA diets. For the main effects of RS, high RS diets had decreased (P < 0.05) SID of total AA, CP, and indispensable AA compared with low RS diets. In conclusion, pelleting diets increased AA digestibility, and pelleting diets with increased crystalline AA or RS did not affect the improvement in AA digestibility from pelleting. Diets formulated with high crystalline AA had increased SID of tryptophan. Formulating diets with high RS resulted in decreased AA digestibility compared with corn-soybean meal-based diets.

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of pelleting on the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids (AA) in diets with or without increased concentrations of free AA and reducing sugars (RS). Treatments were arranged in a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial with the main effects of diet form (mash or pellet), crystalline AA (low or high), or RS (low or high), provided by dried distillers grains with solubles and bakery meal. A total of 8 illeal cannulated barrows were fed treatments in an 8 × 8 Latin square design. Results indicated that there was no evidence of interactions between diet types and diet form, indicating that increasing amounts of crystalline AA and RS did not reduce amino acid digestibility when pelleting diets. Additionally, pelleting diets resulted in increased amino acid digestibility compared to mash diets. Diets formulated with 20% dried distillers grains with solubles and 15% bakery resulted in decreased amino acid digestibility compared with the corn­soybean meal-based diets. Crystalline amino acid concentration did not influence amino acid digestibility of indispensable AA, except for SID of tryptophan which was increased in diets with higher concentrations of crystalline AA.

Evaluation of Truck Cab Decontamination Procedures following Inoculation with Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus and Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus.

This experiment aimed to evaluate commercially available disinfectants and their application methods against porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) on truck cab surfaces. Plastic, fabric, and rubber surfaces inoculated with PEDV or PRRSV were placed in a full-scale truck cab and then treated with one of eight randomly assigned disinfectant treatments. After application, surfaces were environmentally sampled with cotton gauze and tested for PEDV and PRRSV using qPCR duplex analysis. There was a disinfectant × surface interaction (p < 0.0001), indicating a detectable amount of PEDV or PRRSV RNA was impacted by disinfectant treatment and surface material. For rubber surfaces, 10% bleach application had lower detectable amounts of RNA compared to all other treatments (p < 0.05) except Intervention via misting fumigation, which was intermediate. In both fabric and plastic surfaces, there was no evidence (p > 0.05) of a difference in detectable RNA between disinfectant treatments. For disinfectant treatments, fabric surfaces with no chemical treatment had less detectable viral RNA compared to the corresponding plastic and rubber (p < 0.05). Intervention applied via pump sprayer to fabric surfaces had less detectable viral RNA than plastic (p < 0.05). Furthermore, 10% bleach applied via pump sprayer to fabric and rubber surfaces had less detectable viral RNA than plastic (p < 0.05). Also, a 10 h downtime, with no chemical application or gaseous fumigation for 10 h, applied to fabric surfaces had less detectable viral RNA than other surfaces (p < 0.05). Sixteen treatments were evaluated via swine bioassay, but all samples failed to produce infectivity. In summary, commercially available disinfectants successfully reduced detectable viral RNA on surfaces but did not eliminate viral genetic material, highlighting the importance of bioexclusion of pathogens of interest.

Summary of methodology used in enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) challenge experiments in weanling pigs and quantitative assessment of observed variability.

Postweaning diarrhea in pigs is often caused by the F4 or F18 strains of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC). To evaluate interventions for ETEC, experimental infection via a challenge model is critical. Others have reviewed ETEC challenge studies, but there is a lack of explanation for the variability in responses observed. Our objective was to quantitatively summarize the responses and variability among ETEC challenge studies and develop a tool for sample size calculation. The most widely evaluated response criteria across ETEC challenge studies consist of growth performance, fecal consistency, immunoglobulins, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and small intestinal morphology. However, there is variation in the responses seen following ETEC infection as well as the variability within each response criteria. Contributing factors include the type of ETEC studied, dose and timing of inoculation, and the number of replications. Generally, a reduction in average daily gain and average daily feed intake are seen following ETEC challenge as well as a rapid increase in diarrhea. The magnitude of response in growth performance varies, and methodologies used to characterize fecal consistency are not standardized. Likewise, fecal bacterial shedding is a common indicator of ETEC infection, but the responses seen across the literature are not consistent due to differences in bacterial enumeration procedures. Emphasis should also be placed on the piglet's immune response to ETEC, which is commonly assessed by quantifying levels of immunoglobulins and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Again, there is variability in these responses across published work due to differences in the timing of sample collection, dose of ETEC pigs are challenged with, and laboratory practices. Small intestinal morphology is drastically altered following infection with ETEC and appears to be a less variable response criterion to evaluate. For each of these outcome variables, we have provided quantitative estimates of the responses seen across the literature as well as the variability within them. While there is a large degree of variability across ETEC challenge experiments, we have provided a quantitative summary of these studies and a Microsoft Excel-based tool was created to calculate sample sizes for future studies that can aid researchers in designing future work.

Isolation of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus from feed ingredients and complete feed, with subsequent RT-qPCR analysis.

We used virus isolation (VI) to determine tissue culture infectivity and reverse-transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) to determine the stability of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus 2 (PRRSV) strain P129 in solvent-extracted soybean meal (SBM), dried distillers grains with solubles (DDGS), complete swine feed (FEED), or medium (DMEM) at 4°C, 23°C, or 37°C for up to 3 d. Samples of each treatment were taken at regular intervals and processed. Supernatant was titrated and used to inoculate confluent MARC-145 cells to determine infectivity. RNA was extracted from each supernatant sample and tested by RT-qPCR to determine any change in detectable virus RNA across matrix type, temperature, and time. An interaction (p = 0.028) was observed for matrix × temperature × hour for live virus detected by VI. At 4°C, the concentration of infectious virus was greatest in DMEM, intermediate in SBM, and lowest in DDGS and FEED. DMEM also had the greatest concentration of infectious PRRSV at 23°C over time; a higher infectious virus concentration was maintained in SBM for longer than in DDGS or FEED. At 37°C, a greater concentration of infectious virus was sustained in DMEM than in the feedstuffs, with concentrations decreasing until 48 h post-inoculation. Only matrix type influenced the quantity of viral RNA detected by RT-qPCR (p = 0.032). More viral RNA was detected in the virus control than in DDGS; SBM and FEED were intermediate. By VI, we found that infectious virus could be harbored in SBM, DDGS, and FEED for a short time.

Genotypic and Phenotypic Characterization of Antimicrobial and Heavy Metal Tolerance in Salmonella enterica and Escherichia coli Isolates from Swine Feed Mills.

Antimicrobials and heavy metals are commonly used in the animal feed industry. The role of in-feed antimicrobials on the evolution and persistence of resistance in enteric bacteria is not well described. Whole-Genome Sequencing (WGS) is widely used for genetic characterizations of bacterial isolates, including antimicrobial resistance, heavy metal tolerance, virulence factors, and relatedness to other sequenced isolates. The goals of this study were to i) use WGS to characterize Salmonella enterica (n = 33) and Escherichia coli (n = 30) isolated from swine feed and feed mill environments; and ii) investigate their genotypic and phenotypic antimicrobial and heavy metal tolerance. Salmonella isolates belonged to 10 serovars, the most common being Cubana, Senftenberg, and Tennessee. E. coli isolates were grouped into 22 O groups. Phenotypic resistance to at least one antimicrobial was observed in 19 Salmonella (57.6%) and 17 E. coli (56.7%) isolates, whereas multidrug resistance (resistant to ≥3 antimicrobial classes) was observed in four Salmonella (12%) and two E. coli (7%) isolates. Antimicrobial resistance genes were identified in 17 Salmonella (51%) and 29 E. coli (97%), with 11 and 29 isolates possessing genes conferring resistance to multiple antimicrobial classes. Phenotypically, 53% Salmonella and 58% E. coli presented resistance to copper and arsenic. All isolates that possessed the copper resistance operon were resistant to the highest concentration tested (40 mM). Heavy metal tolerance genes to copper and silver were present in 26 Salmonella isolates. Our study showed a strong agreement between predicted and measured resistances when comparing genotypic and phenotypic data for antimicrobial resistance, with an overall concordance of 99% and 98.3% for Salmonella and E. coli, respectively.

Recent Incarceration Among Individuals Infected With Hepatitis A Virus During Person-to-Person Community Outbreaks, United States, 2016-2020.

OBJECTIVES: Although many people who are incarcerated have risk factors for hepatitis A virus (HAV) infection, the proportion of hepatitis A cases among people with a recent incarceration is unknown. We examined the relationship between recent incarceration and HAV infection during community-based, person-to-person outbreaks to inform public health recommendations. METHODS: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention surveyed health departments in 33 jurisdictions reporting person-to-person HAV outbreaks during 2016-2020 on the number of outbreak-associated cases, HAV-infected people recently incarcerated, and HAV-associated hospitalizations and deaths. RESULTS: Twenty-five health departments reported 18 327 outbreak-associated hepatitis A cases during January 11, 2016-January 24, 2020. In total, 2093 (11.4%) HAV-infected people had been recently incarcerated. Of those with complete data, 1402 of 1462 (95.9%) had been held in a local jail, and 1513 of 1896 (79.8.%) disclosed hepatitis A risk factors. Eighteen jurisdictions reported incarceration timing relative to the exposure period. Of 9707 cases in these jurisdictions, 991 (10.2%) were among recently incarcerated people; 451 of 688 (65.6%) people with complete data had been incarcerated during all (n = 55) or part (n = 396) of their exposure period. CONCLUSIONS: Correctional facilities are important settings for reaching people with risk factors for HAV infection and can also be venues where transmission occurs. Providing HAV vaccination to incarcerated people, particularly people housed in jails, can be an effective component of community-wide outbreak response.

Evaluation of Liquid and Dry Chemical Treatments To Reduce Salmonella Typhimurium Contamination on Animal Food Manufacturing Surfaces.

ABSTRACT: Salmonella can be isolated from animal food, ingredients, and animal food manufacturing surfaces. There are limited data regarding the sanitation of animal food manufacturing surfaces. This experiment evaluated the effects of nine chemical treatments on reduction of Salmonella Typhimurium contamination on various manufacturing surfaces. This experiment was a 9 × 5 factorial with nine chemical treatments and five surfaces. The nine chemical treatments included one with no inoculation or sanitation treatment (negative control). In the other eight treatments, inoculation with Salmonella Typhimurium was followed by either no sanitation treatment (positive control) or treatment with ground corn; liquid commercial formaldehyde; liquid food-grade sanitizer; liquid medium chain fatty acid blend of caprylic, caproic, and capric acids (MCFA); dry commercial calcium propionate; dry commercial acidulant; and dry commercial benzoic acid. The five surfaces included stainless steel, plastic, polypropylene tote bag, rubber belt, and rubber tire. Plastic had higher levels of Salmonella in the positive control than did the polypropylene tote bag; other surfaces had intermediate levels (P < 0.05). Surfaces treated with formaldehyde had no detectable Salmonella after treatment, and surfaces treated with MCFA had at least a 4-log reduction compared to the control (P < 0.05). The dry acidulant was the most effective dry sanitizer tested, but it had no impact on Salmonella concentration on rubber tires (P < 0.05). Whereas liquid sanitizers were the most effective in this experiment, they have limitations for use in dry bulk systems. In summary, formaldehyde, food-grade sanitizer, and MCFA were the most effective chemical treatments to reduce Salmonella surface contamination. Surface type can also influence Salmonella mitigation strategies; specifically, stainless steel and plastic can be more challenging to sanitize within animal food facilities.

Effects of formic acid and glycerol monolaurate on weanling pig growth performance, fecal consistency, fecal microbiota, and serum immunity.

A total of 350 weanling pigs (DNA 400 × 200; initially, 5.67 ± 0.06 kg BW) were used in a 42-day study with 5 pigs per pen and 14 replicate pens per treatment. At weaning, pigs were allotted to pens in a completely randomized design and pens of pigs were randomly assigned to one of five dietary treatments: 1) negative control (CON; standard nursery diet containing only 150 ppm Zn from trace mineral premix and no acidifier); 2) control diet with 3,000 ppm added zinc from ZnO included in phase 1 and 2,000 ppm added zinc from ZnO included in phase 2 (ZnO); 3) control diet with 0.70% formic acid (FA; Amasil NA; BASF, Florham, NJ); 4) control diet with 0.18% glycerol monolaurate (GML; Natural Biologics GML, Natural Biologics, Newfield, NY); and 5) control diet with a 1.0% blend of formic acid and glycerol monolaurate (FORMI; FORMI 3G, ADDCON GmbH, Bitterfeld-Wolfen, Germany). Pigs were fed treatment diets from d 0 to d 28 and were then fed a common diet from d 28 to d 42. From days 0 to 7, pigs fed ZnO or FORMI had increased (P = 0.03) ADG compared to pigs fed CON, with no difference in feed intake (P > 0.05). Overall, pigs fed GML had reduced (P < 0.0001) ADG compared with those fed the CON, ZnO, or FORMI diets. Fecal DM was evaluated from days 7 to 28 and there was a treatment × day interaction (P = 0.04). Pigs fed GML had a lower fecal DM % on day 7, but a higher fecal DM % on days 14 and 21; however, no differences in fecal DM were observed on day 28. Fresh fecal samples were collected from the same randomly selected pig on days 0 and 14 (70 pigs total;14 pigs per treatment) for analysis of fecal microbial populations using 16S rDNA sequencing. Dietary treatment did not significantly impact fecal microbiota at the phyla level, but pigs fed ZnO had an increased relative abundance (P < 0.01) of the family Clostridiaceae. A blood sample was also collected from one pig per pen on days 0 and 14 for analysis of serum IgA, IgG, and TNF-α. There was no evidence that dietary treatment effected IgA, IgG, or TNF-α concentrations. The effect of sampling day was significant (P < 0.05), where circulating IgA and TNF-α was increased and IgG was decreased from days 0 to 14. In summary, there is potential for a blend of formic acid and GML to improve growth performance immediately post-weaning without negatively impacting fecal consistency. Formic acid and GML alone or in combination did not impact fecal microbial populations or serum immune parameters.

Salmonella enterica 4,[5],12:i:-, an Emerging Threat for the Swine Feed and Pork Production Industry.

ABSTRACT: Salmonella continues to be a significant cause of foodborne illnesses in human medicine. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported Salmonella as the second leading cause of foodborne illness in the United States and the leading cause of both hospitalizations and deaths. Salmonella enterica 4,[5],12:i:- (STM) is a monophasic variant of Salmonella Typhimurium, and it is an emerging threat to both human and animal health. STM was first identified in the 1980s from poultry products and has become increasingly prevalent in meat products including pork. STM has also been identified in swine farms as well as in feed manufacturing environments and feed itself. Similar pulse-field gel electrophoresis profiles have been observed between human clinical cases and the STM samples originating from swine feed. These related profiles suggest a link between ingestion of contaminated feed by swine and the source of foodborne illness in human. The objective of this article was to better understand the history of STM and the possible pathway from swine feed to table. Continued research is necessary to better understand how STM can enter both the feed supply chain and the pork production chain to avoid contamination of pork products destined for human consumption.

Developing a gateway program for importing non-animal origin ingredients from regions with African swine fever virus.

The US Department of Agriculture (USDA) categorizes the risk of African swine fever virus (ASFV) entry into the United States through non-animal origin feed ingredients as 'negligible to moderate, with high uncertainty'. Both Canada and Australia have implemented policies that are suggested to reduce the risk of ASFV entry through feed ingredients, but the United States has not because of scientific limitations that have been addressed by recent publications. As regulators and industry consider a potential pathway forward, the objective of this manuscript is to describe a process to determine if a voluntary or regulatory import policy is warranted by the United States. Initially, the volume and types of non-animal origin feed ingredients imported from countries with ASFV were quantified and assigned a level of risk (high risk: unprocessed grains and oilseeds, moderate risk: soybean co-products (meals, oil, and oilcake), and low risk: amino acids, vitamins, and other synthetically produced products from countries that have ASFV). In 2020, moderate- and high-risk ingredients from ASFV-positive countries represented 3.1% of all ingredients imported into the United States. Policies from Canada and Australia were evaluated for practicality of implementation by US government officials. Industry representatives from both countries consistently stated their policies would not be feasible in the United States due to the differences in cost and complexity of the swine and feed industries. Overall, unprocessed, or high-risk, ingredients from ASFV-positive countries represent a low percentage of imported ingredients into the United States; however, cautionary procedures may still be warranted given industry demand.

Assessment of soy-based imports into the United States and associated foreign animal disease status.

Soy-based products are known to pose a viable risk to U.S. swine herds because of their ability to harbour and transmit virus. This publication aimed to evaluate soy imports into the United States as a whole and from foreign animal disease positive (FAD-positive) countries to determine which products are being imported in the highest quantities and observe potential trends in imports from FAD-positive countries. Import data were accessed through the United States International Trade Commission website (USITC DataWeb) and summarized using R (version 4.0.2, R core team, Vienna, Austria). Twenty-one different Harmonized Tariff Schedule (HTS) codes were queried to determine quantities (metric tonnes, MT) and breakdown of different soy product types being imported into the United States from 2015 to 2020. A total of 78 different countries exported soy products to the United States in 2019 and 2020 with top contributors being Canada (546,467 and 481,497 MT, respectively), India (397,858 and 430,621 MT, respectively) and Argentina (122,116 and 79,471 MT, respectively). Soy oilcake (582,273 MT) was imported in the largest quantities, followed by organic soybeans (270,194 MT) and soy oil (134,436 MT) for 2020. Of the 78 countries, 46 had cases of FAD reported through the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) World Animal Health Information Database (WAHIS). Top exporters of soy products to the United States from FAD-positive countries in 2019 and 2020 were India (397,858 and 430,621 MT, respectively), Argentina (122,116 MT in 2019) and Ukraine (40,293 and 56,392 MT, respectively). The risk of FAD introduction to the United States through soy imports can fluctuate based on where FAD outbreaks are occurring, shipping methods and end usage of products. A system to monitor these factors could help make future decisions about trade and risk of FAD introduction to U.S. swine herds.

Impact of storage conditions and premix type on water-soluble vitamin stability.

Mitigation options to reduce the risk of foreign animal disease entry into the United States may lead to degradation of some vitamins. The objective of Exp. 1 was to determine the impact of 0, 30, 60, or 90 d storage time on water-soluble vitamin (riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, and cobalamin) stability when vitamin premix (VP) and vitamin trace mineral premix (VTM) were blended with 1% inclusion of medium-chain fatty acid (MCFA) (1:1:1 blend of C6:C8:C10) or mineral oil (MO) with different environmental conditions. Samples stored at room temperature (RT) (approximately 22 °C) or in an environmentally controlled chamber set at 40 °C and 75% humidity, high temperature high humidity (HTHH). The sample bags were pulled out at day 0, 30, 60, and 90 for RT condition and HTHH condition. Therefore, treatments were analyzed as a 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 factorial, with two premix types (vitamin premix vs. VTM), two oil types (MO vs. MCFA), two storage conditions (RT vs. HTHH), and three time points (day 30, 60, and 90). The objective of Exp. 2 was to determine the effect of heat pulse treatment and MCFA addition on water-soluble vitamin (riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, and cobalamin) stability with two premix types. A sample from each treatment was heated at 60 °C and 20% humidity. Therefore, treatments were analyzed as a 2 × 2 factorial, with two premix types (VP vs. VTM) and two oil types (MO vs. MCFA). For Exp. 1, the following effects were significant for riboflavin: main effect of premix type (P < 0.0001), storage condition (P = 0.015), and storage time (P < 0.0001); for pantothenic acid: premix type × storage time × storage condition (P = 0.003) and premix type × oil type (P < 0.0001) interactions; and for cobalamin: premix type × storage condition (P < 0.0001) and storage time × storage condition (P < 0.0001) interactions and main effect of oil type (P = 0.018). The results of Exp. 2 demonstrated that there was an interaction between oil type and premix type for only pantothenic acid (P = 0.021). The oil type did not affect the stability of riboflavin, niacin, or cobalamin and pantothenic acid stability was not different within similar premixes. The only difference in water-soluble vitamin stability between VP and VTM was for pantothenic acid (P < 0.001). The results of this experiment demonstrated that the stability of water soluble vitamins are dependent on the vitamin of interest and the conditions at which it is stored.