Effect of Ankle Motion and Tensile Stress at the Achilles Tendon on the Contact Pressure Between the Achilles Tendon and the Calcaneus.

Impingement between the Achilles tendon and the posterosuperior prominence of the calcaneus is considered to be a cause of insertional Achilles tendinopathy. The corresponding treatment intends to reduce tensile stress from calf muscles and avoid hyper-dorsiflexion of the ankle joint for decreasing the contact pressure; however, no study has reported on whether these treatments can decrease impingement. Thus, this study investigated the hypothesis that the tensile stress of the Achilles tendon and ankle motion affect the contact pressure between the Achilles tendon and the posterosuperior prominence of the calcaneus. Six fresh-frozen cadaveric lower leg specimens were procured. Each specimen was set to a custom foot-loading frame and loaded with a ground reaction force of 40 N and a tensile load of 70 N along the Achilles tendon. The contact pressure between the Achilles tendon and the posterosuperior prominence of the calcaneus was measured using a miniature pressure sensor under different tensile loadings of the Achilles tendon at the neutral ankle position. Similarly, the contact pressures during the ankle motion from a neutral position to maximum dorsiflexion were measured. The tensile load of the Achilles tendon and ankle motion affected the contact pressure between the Achilles tendon and the posterosuperior prominence of the calcaneus. The contact pressure increased with tensile load or ankle dorsiflexion. Conditions with increasing the tensile load of the Achilles tendon or under ankle dorsiflexion increase the contact pressure between the Achilles tendon and the posterosuperior prominence of the calcaneus.

A Critical Neurodevelopmental Role for L-Type Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels in Neurite Extension and Radial Migration.

Despite many association studies linking gene polymorphisms and mutations of L-type voltage-gated Ca2+ channels (VGCCs) in neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism and schizophrenia, the roles of specific L-type VGCC during brain development remain unclear. Calcium signaling has been shown to be essential for neurodevelopmental processes such as sculpting of neurites, functional wiring, and fine tuning of growing networks. To investigate this relationship, we performed submembraneous calcium imaging using a membrane-tethered genetically encoded calcium indicator (GECI) Lck-G-CaMP7. We successfully recorded spontaneous regenerative calcium transients (SRCaTs) in developing mouse excitatory cortical neurons prepared from both sexes before synapse formation. SRCaTs originated locally in immature neurites independently of somatic calcium rises and were significantly more elevated in the axons than in dendrites. SRCaTs were not blocked by tetrodoxin, a Na+ channel blocker, but were strongly inhibited by hyperpolarization, suggesting a voltage-dependent source. Pharmacological and genetic manipulations revealed the critical importance of the Cav1.2 (CACNA1C) pore-forming subunit of L-type VGCCs, which were indeed expressed in immature mouse brains. Consistently, knocking out Cav1.2 resulted in significant alterations of neurite outgrowth. Furthermore, expression of a gain-of-function Cav1.2 mutant found in Timothy syndrome, an autosomal dominant multisystem disorder exhibiting syndromic autism, resulted in impaired radial migration of layer 2/3 excitatory neurons, whereas postnatal abrogation of Cav1.2 enhancement could rescue cortical malformation. Together, these lines of evidence suggest a critical role for spontaneous opening of L-type VGCCs in neural development and corticogenesis and indicate that L-type VGCCs might constitute a perinatal therapeutic target for neuropsychiatric calciochannelopathies.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Despite many association studies linking gene polymorphisms and mutations of L-type voltage-gated Ca2+ channels (VGCCs) in neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism and schizophrenia, the roles of specific L-type VGCCs during brain development remain unclear. We here combined the latest Ca2+ indicator technology, quantitative pharmacology, and in utero electroporation and found a hitherto unsuspected role for L-type VGCCs in determining the Ca2+ signaling landscape of mouse immature neurons. We found that malfunctional L-type VGCCs in immature neurons before birth might cause errors in neuritic growth and cortical migration. Interestingly, the retarded corticogenesis phenotype was rescued by postnatal correction of L-type VGCC signal aberration. These findings suggest that L-type VGCCs might constitute a perinatal therapeutic target for neurodevelopment-associated psychiatric disorders.

Rational design of a high-affinity, fast, red calcium indicator R-CaMP2.

Fluorescent Ca(2+) reporters are widely used as readouts of neuronal activities. Here we designed R-CaMP2, a high-affinity red genetically encoded calcium indicator (GECI) with a Hill coefficient near 1. Use of the calmodulin-binding sequence of CaMKK-α and CaMKK-ß in lieu of an M13 sequence resulted in threefold faster rise and decay times of Ca(2+) transients than R-CaMP1.07. These features allowed resolving single action potentials (APs) and recording fast AP trains up to 20-40 Hz in cortical slices. Somatic and synaptic activities of a cortical neuronal ensemble in vivo were imaged with similar efficacy as with previously reported sensitive green GECIs. Combining green and red GECIs, we successfully achieved dual-color monitoring of neuronal activities of distinct cell types, both in the mouse cortex and in freely moving Caenorhabditis elegans. Dual imaging using R-CaMP2 and green GECIs provides a powerful means to interrogate orthogonal and hierarchical neuronal ensembles in vivo.

Calmodulin kinases: essential regulators in health and disease.

Neuronal activity induces intracellular Ca2+ increase, which triggers activation of a series of Ca2+ -dependent signaling cascades. Among these, the multifunctional Ca2+ /calmodulin-dependent protein kinases (CaMKs, or calmodulin kinases) play key roles in neuronal transmission, synaptic plasticity, circuit development and cognition. The most investigated CaMKs for these roles in neuronal functions are CaMKI, CaMKII, CaMKIV and we will shed light on these neuronal CaMKs' functions in this review. Catalytically active members of CaMKs currently are CaMKI, CaMKII, CaMKIV and CaMKK. Although they all necessitate the binding of Ca2+ and calmodulin complex (Ca2+ /CaM) for releasing autoinhibition, each member of CaMK has distinct activation mechanisms-autophosphorylation mediated autonomy of multimeric CaMKII and CaMKK-dependent phosphoswitch-induced activation of CaMKI or CaMKIV. Furthermore, each CaMK shows distinct subcellular localization that underlies specific compartmentalized function in each activated neuron. In this review, we first summarize these molecular characteristics of each CaMK as to regulation and subcellular localization, and then describe each biological function. In the last section, we also focus on the emerging role of CaMKs in pathophysiological conditions by introducing the recent studies, especially focusing on drug addiction and depression, and discuss how dysfunctional CaMKs may contribute to the pathology of the neuropsychological disorders. This article is part of the mini review series "60th Anniversary of the Japanese Society for Neurochemistry".

Functional labeling of neurons and their projections using the synthetic activity-dependent promoter E-SARE.

Identifying the neuronal ensembles that respond to specific stimuli and mapping their projection patterns in living animals are fundamental challenges in neuroscience. To this end, we engineered a synthetic promoter, the enhanced synaptic activity-responsive element (E-SARE), that drives neuronal activity-dependent gene expression more potently than other existing immediate-early gene promoters. Expression of a drug-inducible Cre recombinase downstream of E-SARE enabled imaging of neuronal populations that respond to monocular visual stimulation and tracking of their long-distance thalamocortical projections in living mice. Targeted cell-attached recordings and calcium imaging of neurons in sensory cortices revealed that E-SARE reporter expression correlates with sensory-evoked neuronal activity at the single-cell level and is highly specific to the type of stimuli presented to the animals. This activity-dependent promoter can expand the repertoire of genetic approaches for high-resolution anatomical and functional analysis of neural circuits.

Targeting Neurons with Functional Oxytocin Receptors: A Novel Set of Simple Knock-In Mouse Lines for Oxytocin Receptor Visualization and Manipulation.

The neuropeptide oxytocin (Oxt) plays important roles in modulating social behaviors. Oxt receptor (Oxtr) is abundantly expressed in the brain and its relationship to socio-behavioral controls has been extensively studied using mouse brains. Several genetic tools to visualize and/or manipulate Oxtr-expressing cells, such as fluorescent reporters and Cre recombinase drivers, have been generated by ES-cell based gene targeting or bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) transgenesis. However, these mouse lines displayed some differences in their Oxtr expression profiles probably because of the complex context and integrity of their genomic configurations in each line. Here, we apply our sophisticated genome-editing techniques to the Oxtr locus, systematically generating a series of knock-in mouse lines, in which its endogenous transcriptional regulations are intactly preserved and evaluate their expression profiles to ensure the reliability of our new tools. We employ the epitope tagging strategy, with which C-terminally fused tags can be detected by highly specific antibodies, to successfully visualize the Oxtr protein distribution on the neural membrane with super-resolution imaging for the first time. By using T2A self-cleaving peptide sequences, we also induce proper expressions of tdTomato reporter, codon-improved Cre recombinase (iCre), and spatiotemporally inducible Cre-ERT2 in Oxtr-expressing neurons. Electrophysiological recordings from tdTomato-positive cells in the reporter mice support the validity of our tool design. Retro-orbital injections of AAV-PHP.eB vector into the Cre line further enabled visualization of recombinase activities in the appropriate brain regions. Moreover, the first-time Cre-ERT2 line drives Cre-mediated recombination in a spatiotemporally controlled manner on tamoxifen (TMX) administration. These tools thus provide an excellent resource for future functional studies in Oxt-responsive neurons and should prove of broad interest in the field.

Development of an L-type Ca2+ channel-dependent Ca2+ transient during the radial migration of cortical excitatory neurons.

Increasing evidence has shown that voltage-gated L-type Ca2+ channels (LTCCs) are crucial for neurodevelopmental events, including neuronal differentiation/migration and neurite morphogenesis/extension. However, the time course of their functional maturation during the development of excitatory neurons remains unknown. Using a combination of fluorescence in situ hybridization and in utero electroporation-based labeling, we found that the transcripts of Cacna1c and Cacna1d, which encode the LTCC pore-forming subunits, were upregulated in the intermediate zone (IZ) during radial migration. Ca2+ imaging using GCaMP6s in acute brain slices showed spontaneous Ca2+ transients in migrating neurons throughout the IZ. Neurons in the IZ upper layer, especially in the multipolar-to-bipolar transition layer (TL), exhibited more frequent Ca2+ transients than adjacent layers and responded to FPL64176, a potent activator of LTCC. Consistently, nimodipine, an LTCC blocker, inhibited spontaneous Ca2+ transients in neurons in the TL. Collectively, we showed a hitherto unknown increased prevalence of LTCC-dependent Ca2+ transients in the TL of the IZ upper layer during the radial migration of excitatory neurons, which could be essential for the regulation of Ca2+-dependent neurodevelopmental processes.

Control of cortical axon elongation by a GABA-driven Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase cascade.

Ca(2+) signaling plays important roles during both axonal and dendritic growth. Yet whether and how Ca(2+) rises may trigger and contribute to the development of long-range cortical connections remains mostly unknown. Here, we demonstrate that two separate limbs of the Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase (CaMKK)-CaMKI cascades, CaMKK-CaMKIalpha and CaMKK-CaMKIgamma, critically coordinate axonal and dendritic morphogenesis of cortical neurons, respectively. The axon-specific morphological phenotype required a diffuse cytoplasmic localization and a strikingly alpha-isoform-specific kinase activity of CaMKI. Unexpectedly, treatment with muscimol, a GABA(A) receptor agonist, selectively stimulated elongation of axons but not of dendrites, and the CaMKK-CaMKIalpha cascade critically mediated this axonogenic effect. Consistent with these findings, during early brain development, in vivo knockdown of CaMKIalpha significantly impaired the terminal axonal extension and thereby perturbed the refinement of the interhemispheric callosal projections into the contralateral cortices. Our findings thus indicate a novel role for the GABA-driven CaMKK-CaMKIalpha cascade as a mechanism critical for accurate cortical axon pathfinding, an essential process that may contribute to fine-tuning the formation of interhemispheric connectivity during the perinatal development of the CNS.

Differential roles for CaM kinases in mediating excitation-morphogenesis coupling during formation and maturation of neuronal circuits.

Ca(2+) -regulated reorganization of actin cytoskeleton is one of the key cell biological events that critically regulate neuronal morphogenesis during circuit formation, spinogenesis during synapse development, and activity-dependent structural plasticity at mature synapses. However, it remains unclear as to what extent the underlying Ca(2+) signaling processes are shared or segregated. Here, we present evidence from the literature that collectively begins to suggest that distinct calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMK) isoforms are differentially expressed in time and in subcellular space, and thus may be selectively activated and engaged by distinct upstream stimuli; each CaMK isoform, in turn, couples to related, but separate, cytoskeletal and transcriptional regulatory pathways, dependent on its abundance or physical proximity with either the upstream or downstream signaling complexes. These signal transduction characteristics provide the basis for better understanding the role of excitation-morphogenesis coupling via multiple CaMKs during neuronal circuit and synapse formation.

Comparison of compressive forces caused by various cannulated cancellous screws used in arthroscopic ankle arthrodesis.

BACKGROUND: When performing arthroscopic ankle arthrodesis for end-stage ankle arthritis, internal fixation is performed using bone screws after appropriate preparation. However, optimal characteristics of bone screws have not been examined in terms of pressure force. Objective comparisons of bone-screw performance may provide information on procedures for arthroscopic ankle arthrodesis. The study objectives were to determine whether it was possible to measure compressive force changes using the newly developed device and to infer all screw characteristics from measurement results when used in actual surgeries. In addition, we performed experiments on cadavers to verify whether the experimental results could be applied to the joints of living subjects. METHODS: Three types of screws (S1, S2, and S3) were inserted into the unique measurement device, and the changes in pressure were measured for each 45° turn. Changes in pressure and maximum pressure force were recorded after the application of the screws. After reaching the maximum pressure in the simulated bone, further screw rotations were accompanied by a gradual pressure decrease to 0 MPa. We also measured pressure changes in a similar manner by inserting a miniature pressure sensor into the talocrural joints of cadavers. RESULTS: The mean maximum pressure ± standard deviation for S1, S2, and S3 were 0.832 ± 0.164 MPa, 0.434 ± 0.116 MPa, and 0.414 ± 0.127 MPa, respectively. Pressure slopes to the maximum did not significantly differ between the screws in the simulated bone, and a subsequent pressure decrease to 0 MPa was significantly more rapid for S1 than for S2 and S3. Although pressure failure after the overtightening of screws was only observed in the simulated bone, patterns of pressure vs. rotation angle were similar in simulated and cadaveric bones. The pressure profile characteristics of three different screw types were determined. CONCLUSIONS: We were able to measure the compressive force changes using the newly developed device when the screws were inserted. On the basis of the measurement results, we were able to infer the characteristics of all screws when used in actual surgery.

Facilitation of axon outgrowth via a Wnt5a-CaMKK-CaMKIα pathway during neuronal polarization.

BACKGROUND: Wnt5a, originally identified as a guidance cue for commissural axons, activates a non-canonical pathway critical for cortical axonal morphogenesis. The molecular signaling cascade underlying this event remains obscure. RESULTS: Through Ca(2+) imaging in acute embryonic cortical slices, we tested if radially migrating cortical excitatory neurons that already bore primitive axons were sensitive to Wnt5a. While Wnt5a only evoked brief Ca(2+) transients in immature neurons present in the intermediate zone (IZ), Wnt5a-induced Ca(2+) oscillations were sustained in neurons that migrated out to the cortical plate (CP). We wondered whether this early Wnt5a-Ca(2+) signaling during neuronal polarization has a morphogenetic consequence. During transition from round to polarized shape, Wnt5a administration to immature cultured cortical neurons specifically promoted axonal, but not dendritic, outgrowth. Pharmacological and genetic inhibition of the CaMKK-CaMKIα pathway abolished Wnt5a-induced axonal elongation, and rescue of CaMKIα in CaMKIα-knockdown neurons restored Wnt5a-mediated axon outgrowth. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that Wnt5a activates Ca(2+) signaling during a neuronal morphogenetic time window when axon outgrowth is critically facilitated. Furthermore, the CaMKK-CaMKIα cascade is required for the axonal growth effect of Wnt5a during neuronal polarization.

Region-specific activation of CRTC1-CREB signaling mediates long-term fear memory.

CREB is a pivotal mediator of activity-regulated gene transcription that underlies memory formation and allocation. The contribution of a key CREB cofactor, CREB-regulated transcription coactivator 1 (CRTC1), has, however, remained elusive. Here we show that several constitutive kinase pathways and an activity-regulated phosphatase, calcineurin, converge to determine the nucleocytoplasmic shuttling of CRTC1. This, in turn, triggered an activity-dependent association of CRTC1 with CREB-dependent regulatory elements found on IEG promoters. Forced expression of nuclear CRTC1 in hippocampal neurons activated CREB-dependent transcription, and was sufficient to enhance contextual fear memory. Surprisingly, during contextual fear conditioning, we found evidence of nuclear recruitment of endogenous CRTC1 only in the basolateral amygdala, and not in the hippocampus. Consistently, CRTC1 knockdown in the amygdala, but not in the hippocampus, significantly attenuated fear memory. Thus, CRTC1 has a wide impact on CREB-dependent memory processes, but fine-tunes CREB output in a region-specific manner.