Lactate induces metabolic and epigenetic reprogramming of pro-inflammatory Th17 cells.

Increased lactate levels in the tissue microenvironment are a well-known feature of chronic inflammation. However, the role of lactate in regulating T cell function remains controversial. Here, we demonstrate that extracellular lactate predominantly induces deregulation of the Th17-specific gene expression program by modulating the metabolic and epigenetic status of Th17 cells. Following lactate treatment, Th17 cells significantly reduced their IL-17A production and upregulated Foxp3 expression through ROS-driven IL-2 secretion. Moreover, we observed increased levels of genome-wide histone H3K18 lactylation, a recently described marker for active chromatin in macrophages, in lactate-treated Th17 cells. In addition, we show that high lactate concentrations suppress Th17 pathogenicity during intestinal inflammation in mice. These results indicate that lactate is capable of reprogramming pro-inflammatory T cell phenotypes into regulatory T cells.

Verteporfin protects against Th17 cell-mediated EAE independently of YAP inhibition.

The known YAP inhibitor verteporfin is capable of repressing IL-17A production in Th17 cells. However, this effect is mediated independently of YAP and can ameliorate Th17-mediated experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) upon in vivo administration. The data suggest verteprofin's mode of action for the design of novel therapeutic autoimmune disease intervention.

Siglec-6 is a novel target for CAR T-cell therapy in acute myeloid leukemia.

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is an attractive entity for the development of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell immunotherapy because AML blasts are susceptible to T-cell-mediated elimination. Here, we introduce sialic acid-binding immunoglobulin-like lectin 6 (Siglec-6) as a novel target for CAR T cells in AML. We designed a Siglec-6-specific CAR with a targeting domain derived from the human monoclonal antibody JML-1. We found that Siglec-6 is commonly expressed on AML cell lines and primary AML blasts, including the subpopulation of AML stem cells. Treatment with Siglec-6 CAR T cells confers specific antileukemia reactivity that correlates with Siglec-6 expression in preclinical models, including induction of complete remission in a xenograft AML model in immunodeficient mice (NSG/U937). In addition, we confirmed Siglec-6 expression on transformed B cells in chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), and specific anti-CLL reactivity of Siglec-6 CAR T cells in vitro. Of particular interest, we found that Siglec-6 is not detectable on normal hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) and that treatment with Siglec-6 CAR T cells does not affect their viability and lineage differentiation in colony-formation assays. These data suggest that Siglec-6 CAR T-cell therapy may be used to effectively treat AML without the need for subsequent allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. In mature normal hematopoietic cells, we detected Siglec-6 in a proportion of memory (and naïve) B cells and basophilic granulocytes, suggesting the potential for limited on-target/off-tumor reactivity. The lack of expression of Siglec-6 on normal HSPCs is a key to differentiating it from other Siglec family members (eg, Siglec-3 [CD33]) and other CAR target antigens (eg, CD123) that are under investigation in AML, and it warrants the clinical investigation of Siglec-6 CAR T-cell therapy.

The NF-κB transcription factor c-Rel controls host defense against Citrobacter rodentium.

Mice lacking CD4+ T cells or B cells are highly susceptible to Citrobacter rodentium infection. In this study, we show that the activity of the transcription factor c-Rel in lymphocytes is crucial for clearance of C. rodentium. Mice deficient for c-Rel fail to generate protective antibodies and to eradicate the pathogen.

Short-chain fatty acids: Bacterial messengers modulating the immunometabolism of T cells.

Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are mainly generated by bacterial fermentation of non-digestible carbohydrates such as dietary fiber. In the last decade, new investigations have revealed that SCFAs have a very specific function and serve as active microbial metabolites, which are able to modulate the function of immune cells in the intestine and other tissues. Recent studies have highlighted the immunomodulatory potential of SCFAs in several autoimmune and inflammatory disorders such as multiple sclerosis, colitis, type 1 diabetes and rheumatoid arthritis. While the SCFA-mediated activation of GPR41/GPR43 signalling pathways and their inhibitory activity on histone deacetylases have been extensively investigated, the impact of SCFAs on the T cell metabolism is poorly understood. SCFAs induce metabolic alterations in T cells by enhancing the activity of the mTOR complex and by regulating their glucose metabolism. Once taken up into T lymphocytes, SCFA-derived acetyl groups contribute to the cellular acetyl-CoA pool, which influences the histone acetylation and cytokine gene expression. This article reviews how SCFAs modulate the metabolic status of T cells, thereby impacting on epigenetic modifications and T cell function. We will also discuss how the recent findings from SCFA biology might be utilized for potential immune therapies of various autoimmune diseases.

The Impact of Gut Microbiota-Derived Metabolites on the Tumor Immune Microenvironment.

Prevention of the effectiveness of anti-tumor immune responses is one of the canonical cancer hallmarks. The competition for crucial nutrients within the tumor microenvironment (TME) between cancer cells and immune cells creates a complex interplay characterized by metabolic deprivation. Extensive efforts have recently been made to understand better the dynamic interactions between cancer cells and surrounding immune cells. Paradoxically, both cancer cells and activated T cells are metabolically dependent on glycolysis, even in the presence of oxygen, a metabolic process known as the Warburg effect. The intestinal microbial community delivers various types of small molecules that can potentially augment the functional capabilities of the host immune system. Currently, several studies are trying to explore the complex functional relationship between the metabolites secreted by the human microbiome and anti-tumor immunity. Recently, it has been shown that a diverse array of commensal bacteria synthetizes bioactive molecules that enhance the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy, including immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) treatment and adoptive cell therapy with chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells. In this review, we highlight the importance of commensal bacteria, particularly of the gut microbiota-derived metabolites that are capable of shaping metabolic, transcriptional and epigenetic processes within the TME in a therapeutically meaningful way.

Learning from the microbes: exploiting the microbiome to enforce T cell immunotherapy.

The opportunities genetic engineering has created in the field of adoptive cellular therapy for cancer are accelerating the development of novel treatment strategies using chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) and T cell receptor (TCR) T cells. The great success in the context of hematologic malignancies has made especially CAR T cell therapy a promising approach capable of achieving long-lasting remission. However, the causalities involved in mediating resistance to treatment or relapse are still barely investigated. Research on T cell exhaustion and dysfunction has drawn attention to host-derived factors that define both the immune and tumor microenvironment (TME) crucially influencing efficacy and toxicity of cellular immunotherapy. The microbiome, as one of the most complex host factors, has become a central topic of investigations due to its ability to impact on health and disease. Recent findings support the hypothesis that commensal bacteria and particularly microbiota-derived metabolites educate and modulate host immunity and TME, thereby contributing to the response to cancer immunotherapy. Hence, the composition of microbial strains as well as their soluble messengers are considered to have predictive value regarding CAR T cell efficacy and toxicity. The diversity of mechanisms underlying both beneficial and detrimental effects of microbiota comprise various epigenetic, metabolic and signaling-related pathways that have the potential to be exploited for the improvement of CAR T cell function. In this review, we will discuss the recent findings in the field of microbiome-cancer interaction, especially with respect to new trajectories that commensal factors can offer to advance cellular immunotherapy.

Accelerating development of engineered T cell therapies in the EU: current regulatory framework for studying multiple product versions and T2EVOLVE recommendations.

To accelerate the development of Advanced Therapy Medicinal Products (ATMPs) for patients suffering from life-threatening cancer with limited therapeutic options, regulatory approaches need to be constantly reviewed, evaluated and adjusted, as necessary. This includes utilizing science and risk-based approaches to mitigate and balance potential risks associated with early clinical research and a more flexible manufacturing paradigm. In this paper, T2EVOLVE an Innovative Medicine Initiative (IMI) consortium explores opportunities to expedite the development of CAR and TCR engineered T cell therapies in the EU by leveraging tools within the existing EU regulatory framework to facilitate an iterative and adaptive learning approach across different product versions with similar design elements or based on the same platform technology. As understanding of the linkage between product quality attributes, manufacturing processes, clinical efficacy and safety evolves through development and post licensure, opportunities are emerging to streamline regulatory submissions, optimize clinical studies and extrapolate data across product versions reducing the need to perform duplicative studies. It is worth noting that this paper is focusing on CAR- and TCR-engineered T cell therapies but the concepts may be applied more broadly to engineered cell therapy products (e.g., CAR NK cell therapy products).

Lymphodepletion - an essential but undervalued part of the chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy cycle.

Lymphodepletion (LD) or conditioning is an essential step in the application of currently used autologous and allogeneic chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR-T) therapies as it maximizes engraftment, efficacy and long-term survival of CAR-T. Its main modes of action are the depletion and modulation of endogenous lymphocytes, conditioning of the microenvironment for improved CAR-T expansion and persistence, and reduction of tumor load. However, most LD regimens provide a broad and fairly unspecific suppression of T-cells as well as other hematopoietic cells, which can also lead to severe side effects, particularly infections. We reviewed 1271 published studies (2011-2023) with regard to current LD strategies for approved anti-CD19 CAR-T products for large B cell lymphoma (LBCL). Fludarabine (Flu) and cyclophosphamide (Cy) (alone or in combination) were the most commonly used agents. A large number of different schemes and combinations have been reported. In the respective schemes, doses of Flu and Cy (range 75-120mg/m2 and 750-1.500mg/m2) and wash out times (range 2-5 days) differed substantially. Furthermore, combinations with other agents such as bendamustine (benda), busulfan or alemtuzumab (for allogeneic CAR-T) were described. This diversity creates a challenge but also an opportunity to investigate the impact of LD on cellular kinetics and clinical outcomes of CAR-T. Only 21 studies explicitly investigated in more detail the influence of LD on safety and efficacy. As Flu and Cy can potentially impact both the in vivo activity and toxicity of CAR-T, a more detailed analysis of LD outcomes will be needed before we are able to fully assess its impact on different T-cell subsets within the CAR-T product. The T2EVOLVE consortium propagates a strategic investigation of LD protocols for the development of optimized conditioning regimens.

Transcription factor c-Rel mediates communication between commensal bacteria and mucosal lymphocytes.

The NF-κB transcription factor c-Rel plays a crucial role in promoting and regulating immune responses and inflammation. However, the function of c-Rel in modulating the mucosal immune system is poorly understood. T follicular helper (Tfh) cells and IgA production in gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT) such as Peyer's patches (PPs) are important for maintaining the intestinal homeostasis. Here, c-Rel was identified as an essential factor regulating intestinal IgA generation and function of Tfh cells. Genetic deletion of c-Rel resulted in the aberrant formation of germinal centers (GCs) in PPs, significantly reduced IgA generation and defective Tfh cell differentiation. Supporting these findings, the Ag-specific IgA response to Citrobacter rodentium was strongly impaired in c-Rel-deficient mice. Interestingly, an excessive expansion of segmented filamentous bacteria (SFB) was observed in the small intestine of animals lacking c-Rel. Yet, the production of IL-17A, IgA, and IL-21, which are induced by SFB, was impaired due to the lack of transcriptional control by c-Rel. Collectively, the transcriptional activity of c-Rel regulates Tfh cell function and IgA production in the gut, thus preserving the intestinal homeostasis.

Selected commensals educate the intestinal vascular and immune system for immunocompetence.

BACKGROUND: The intestinal microbiota fundamentally guides the development of a normal intestinal physiology, the education, and functioning of the mucosal immune system. The Citrobacter rodentium-carrier model in germ-free (GF) mice is suitable to study the influence of selected microbes on an otherwise blunted immune response in the absence of intestinal commensals. RESULTS: Here, we describe that colonization of adult carrier mice with 14 selected commensal microbes (OMM12 + MC2) was sufficient to reestablish the host immune response to enteric pathogens; this conversion was facilitated by maturation and activation of the intestinal blood vessel system and the step- and timewise stimulation of innate and adaptive immunity. While the immature colon of C. rodentium-infected GF mice did not allow sufficient extravasation of neutrophils into the gut lumen, colonization with OMM12 + MC2 commensals initiated the expansion and activation of the visceral vascular system enabling granulocyte transmigration into the gut lumen for effective pathogen elimination. CONCLUSIONS: Consortium modeling revealed that the addition of two facultative anaerobes to the OMM12 community was essential to further progress the intestinal development. Moreover, this study demonstrates the therapeutic value of a defined consortium to promote intestinal maturation and immunity even in adult organisms. Video Abstract.

Time 2EVOLVE: predicting efficacy of engineered T-cells - how far is the bench from the bedside?

Immunotherapy with gene engineered CAR and TCR transgenic T-cells is a transformative treatment in cancer medicine. There is a rich pipeline with target antigens and sophisticated technologies that will enable establishing this novel treatment not only in rare hematological malignancies, but also in common solid tumors. The T2EVOLVE consortium is a public private partnership directed at accelerating the preclinical development of and increasing access to engineered T-cell immunotherapies for cancer patients. A key ambition in T2EVOLVE is to assess the currently available preclinical models for evaluating safety and efficacy of engineered T cell therapy and developing new models and test parameters with higher predictive value for clinical safety and efficacy in order to improve and accelerate the selection of lead T-cell products for clinical translation. Here, we review existing and emerging preclinical models that permit assessing CAR and TCR signaling and antigen binding, the access and function of engineered T-cells to primary and metastatic tumor ligands, as well as the impact of endogenous factors such as the host immune system and microbiome. Collectively, this review article presents a perspective on an accelerated translational development path that is based on innovative standardized preclinical test systems for CAR and TCR transgenic T-cell products.

Time to evolve: predicting engineered T cell-associated toxicity with next-generation models.

Despite promising clinical results in a small subset of malignancies, therapies based on engineered chimeric antigen receptor and T-cell receptor T cells are associated with serious adverse events, including cytokine release syndrome and neurotoxicity. These toxicities are sometimes so severe that they significantly hinder the implementation of this therapeutic strategy. For a long time, existing preclinical models failed to predict severe toxicities seen in human clinical trials after engineered T-cell infusion. However, in recent years, there has been a concerted effort to develop models, including humanized mouse models, which can better recapitulate toxicities observed in patients. The Accelerating Development and Improving Access to CAR and TCR-engineered T cell therapy (T2EVOLVE) consortium is a public-private partnership directed at accelerating the preclinical development and increasing access to engineered T-cell therapy for patients with cancer. A key ambition in T2EVOLVE is to design new models and tools with higher predictive value for clinical safety and efficacy, in order to improve and accelerate the selection of lead T-cell products for clinical translation. Herein, we review existing preclinical models that are used to test the safety of engineered T cells. We will also highlight limitations of these models and propose potential measures to improve them.

Microbial metabolites: novel therapeutic tools for boosting cancer therapies.

The microbiome is a hidden treasure trove comprising various microorganisms that produce a wide range of bioactive molecules. Recent studies provide evidence for the potential impact of microbiota on cancer therapies. Here, we summarize how the molecular interaction of two groups of microbial metabolites with T cells improves immunotherapy for cancer.

The Role of Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Bile Acids in Intestinal and Liver Function, Inflammation, and Carcinogenesis.

During the past decade, researchers have investigated the role of microbiota in health and disease. Recent findings support the hypothesis that commensal bacteria and in particular microbiota-derived metabolites have an impact on development of inflammation and carcinogenesis. Major classes of microbial-derived molecules such as short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) and secondary bile acids (BAs) were shown to have immunomodulatory potential in various autoimmune, inflammatory as well as cancerous disease models and are dependent on diet-derived substrates. The versatile mechanisms underlying both beneficial and detrimental effects of bacterial metabolites comprise diverse regulatory pathways in lymphocytes and non-immune cells including changes in the signaling, metabolic and epigenetic status of these. Consequently, SCFAs as strong modulators of immunometabolism and histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors have been investigated as therapeutic agents attenuating inflammatory and autoimmune disorders. Moreover, BAs were shown to modulate the microbial composition, adaptive and innate immune response. In this review, we will discuss the recent findings in the field of microbiota-derived metabolites, especially with respect to the molecular and cellular mechanisms of SCFA and BA biology in the context of intestinal and liver diseases.

Use of Inhibitory Compounds to Dissect the Molecular Pathways Involved in Regulatory B-Cell Differentiation.

Regulatory B cells (Bregs) are IL-10-producing lymphocytes able to suppress inflammatory and autoimmune responses. Pharmacological inhibition of key enzymes within metabolic or signaling pathways enables the identification of factors involved in the differentiation and function of Bregs . Isolation and treatment of splenic B cells derived from IL-10 reporter mice allow fast screening for modulatory compounds influencing IL-10 secretion via flow cytometry. In this chapter, we outline the protocol for the induction of highly potent and metabolically active Bregs using the short-chain fatty acid pentanoate. Moreover, we show how the utilization of inhibitory compounds facilitates the dissection of the engaged pathways in Bregs .

Pro- and Antitumorigenic Capacity of Immunoproteasomes in Shaping the Tumor Microenvironment.

Apart from the constitutive proteasome, the immunoproteasome that comprises the three proteolytic subunits LMP2, MECL-1, and LMP7 is expressed in most immune cells. In this study, we describe opposing roles for immunoproteasomes in regulating the tumor microenvironment (TME). During chronic inflammation, immunoproteasomes modulated the expression of protumorigenic cytokines and chemokines and enhanced infiltration of innate immune cells, thus triggering the onset of colitis-associated carcinogenesis (CAC) in wild-type mice. Consequently, immunoproteasome-deficient animals (LMP2/MECL-1/LMP7-null mice) were almost completely resistant to CAC development. In patients with ulcerative colitis with high risk for CAC, immunoproteasome-induced protumorigenic mediators were upregulated. In melanoma tumors, the role of immunoproteasomes is relatively unknown. We found that high expression of immunoproteasomes in human melanoma was associated with better prognosis. Similarly, our data revealed that the immunoproteasome has antitumorigenic activity in a mouse model of melanoma. The antitumor immunity against melanoma was compromised in immunoproteasome-deficient mice because of the impaired activity of CD8+ CTLs, CD4+ Th1 cells, and antigen-presenting cells. These findings show that immunoproteasomes may exert opposing roles with either pro- or antitumoral properties in a context-dependent manner.

Microbial short-chain fatty acids modulate CD8+ T cell responses and improve adoptive immunotherapy for cancer.

Emerging data demonstrate that the activity of immune cells can be modulated by microbial molecules. Here, we show that the short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) pentanoate and butyrate enhance the anti-tumor activity of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells through metabolic and epigenetic reprograming. We show that in vitro treatment of CTLs and CAR T cells with pentanoate and butyrate increases the function of mTOR as a central cellular metabolic sensor, and inhibits class I histone deacetylase activity. This reprogramming results in elevated production of effector molecules such as CD25, IFN-γ and TNF-α, and significantly enhances the anti-tumor activity of antigen-specific CTLs and ROR1-targeting CAR T cells in syngeneic murine melanoma and pancreatic cancer models. Our data shed light onto microbial molecules that may be used for enhancing cellular anti-tumor immunity. Collectively, we identify pentanoate and butyrate as two SCFAs with therapeutic utility in the context of cellular cancer immunotherapy.

Exploring the Molecular Mechanisms Underlying the Protective Effects of Microbial SCFAs on Intestinal Tolerance and Food Allergy.

A body of evidence suggests that food allergy (FA) has increased in prevalence over the past few decades. Novel findings support the hypothesis that some commensal bacteria and particularly microbial metabolites might contribute to development of oral tolerance and prevention from FA. Recently, beneficial effects of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), the main class of gut microbiota-derived metabolites, on FA have been proposed. The intestinal SCFAs are major end products during bacterial fermentation of complex and non-digestible carbohydrates such as dietary fiber. The multifaceted mechanisms underlying beneficial effects of SCFAs on the mucosal immune system comprise the regulation of diverse cellular pathways in epithelial, dendritic, and T cells, as well as the impact on the immunometabolism and epigenetic status of regulatory lymphocytes. Of note, SCFAs are effective inhibitors of histone deacetylases (HDACs). As a consequence, SCFAs appear to be implicated in attenuation of intestinal inflammation and autoimmune diseases. In this review, we will discuss the recent development in this research area by highlighting the role of the individual SCFAs acetate, propionate, butyrate, and pentanoate in promoting the differentiation of regulatory T and B cells and their potential beneficial effects on the prevention of FA. In this context, targeted alterations in the gut microbiota in favor of SCFA producers or supplementation of medicinal food enriched in SCFAs could be a novel therapeutic concept for FA.

Dietary cellulose induces anti-inflammatory immunity and transcriptional programs via maturation of the intestinal microbiota.

Although it is generally accepted that dietary fiber is health promoting, the underlying immunological and molecular mechanisms are not well defined, especially with respect to cellulose, the most ubiquitous dietary fiber. Here, the impact of dietary cellulose on intestinal microbiota, immune responses and gene expression in health and disease was examined. Lack of dietary cellulose disrupted the age-related diversification of the intestinal microbiota, which subsequently remained in an immature state. Interestingly, one of the most affected microbial genera was Alistipes which is equipped with enzymes to degrade cellulose. Absence of cellulose changed the microbial metabolome, skewed intestinal immune responses toward inflammation, altered the gene expression of intestinal epithelial cells and mice showed increased sensitivity to colitis induction. In contrast, mice with a defined microbiota including A. finegoldii showed enhanced colonic expression of intestinal IL-22 and Reg3γ restoring intestinal barrier function. This study supports the epidemiological observations and adds a causal explanation for the health promoting effects of the most common biopolymer on earth.