Molecular Architecture of the Mouse Nervous System.

The mammalian nervous system executes complex behaviors controlled by specialized, precisely positioned, and interacting cell types. Here, we used RNA sequencing of half a million single cells to create a detailed census of cell types in the mouse nervous system. We mapped cell types spatially and derived a hierarchical, data-driven taxonomy. Neurons were the most diverse and were grouped by developmental anatomical units and by the expression of neurotransmitters and neuropeptides. Neuronal diversity was driven by genes encoding cell identity, synaptic connectivity, neurotransmission, and membrane conductance. We discovered seven distinct, regionally restricted astrocyte types that obeyed developmental boundaries and correlated with the spatial distribution of key glutamate and glycine neurotransmitters. In contrast, oligodendrocytes showed a loss of regional identity followed by a secondary diversification. The resource presented here lays a solid foundation for understanding the molecular architecture of the mammalian nervous system and enables genetic manipulation of specific cell types.

Expressive vocabulary development in children with moderate hearing loss - the impact of auditory variables and early consonant production.

In this study, the early expressive vocabulary development was investigated in a group of children with moderate hearing loss (HL). Size and development of expressive vocabulary from 18 30 months were analyzed and compared to a group of children with normal hearing (NH). For the children with HL, the impact of auditory variables on number of words were examined. The relationship of early consonant production to number of words produced of both groups were examined and the phonological complexity of reported words was compared between the groups. The results showed that children with HL (n = 8) produced a similar number of words as the NH (n = 8) at 18 months, but fewer at 24 and 30 months. Hours of HA use showed significant correlations to number of words. The number of different true consonants at 18 months for the whole group showed a significant relationship to number of words produced at 24 months. No significant differences were found between children with HL and NH children regarding phonological complexity of reported words. The findings indicate that the children born with moderate HL who were fitted with hearing aids (HAs) before 6 months of age are at risk in their development of expressive vocabulary. Full-time use of HAs and monitoring of early consonant use should be encouraged in the early intervention of this target group.

Transcription and Signaling Regulators in Developing Neuronal Subtypes of Mouse and Human Enteric Nervous System.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: The enteric nervous system (ENS) regulates gastrointestinal function via different subtypes of neurons, organized into fine-tuned neural circuits. It is not clear how cell diversity is created within the embryonic ENS; information required for development of cell-based therapies and models of enteric neuropathies. We aimed to identify proteins that regulate ENS differentiation and network formation. METHODS: We generated and compared RNA expression profiles of the entire ENS, ENS progenitor cells, and non-ENS gut cells of mice, collected at embryonic days 11.5 and 15.5, when different subtypes of neurons are formed. Gastrointestinal tissues from R26ReYFP reporter mice crossed to Sox10-CreERT2 or Wnt1-Cre mice were dissected and the 6 populations of cells were isolated by flow cytometry. We used histochemistry to map differentially expressed proteins in mouse and human gut tissues at different stages of development, in different regions. We examined enteric neuronal diversity and gastric function in Wnt1-Cre x Sox6fl/fl mice, which do not express the Sox6 gene in the ENS. RESULTS: We identified 147 transcription and signaling factors that varied in spatial and temporal expression during development of the mouse ENS. Of the factors also analyzed in human ENS, most were conserved. We uncovered 16 signaling pathways (such as fibroblast growth factor and Eph/ephrin pathways). Transcription factors were grouped according to their specific expression in enteric progenitor cells (such as MEF2C), enteric neurons (such as SOX4), or neuron subpopulations (such as SATB1 and SOX6). Lack of SOX6 in the ENS reduced the numbers of gastric dopamine neurons and delayed gastric emptying. CONCLUSIONS: Using transcriptome and histochemical analyses of the developing mouse and human ENS, we mapped expression patterns of transcription and signaling factors. Further studies of these candidate determinants might elucidate the mechanisms by which enteric stem cells differentiate into neuronal subtypes and form distinct connectivity patterns during ENS development. We found expression of SOX6 to be required for development of gastric dopamine neurons.

Introducing WCM-SE: The word complexity measure phonetically justified and adapted to Swedish.

This paper presents the Word Complexity Measure for Swedish (WCM-SE), an adaptation of the original WCM developed for English by Stoel-Gammon. These measures are used to calculate the phonological complexity of words or vocalizations, based on a number of phonological complexity parameters. Each production receives a complexity score based on how many of the parameters are present in the production. Using phonological complexity scores to measure expressive phonology is suitable for assessing very young children, children with early phonology and children with phonological deficits. It is useful for both relational and independent analyses and enables comparisons between children and across development. The original WCM uses eight phonological complexity parameters in three domains: word patterns, syllable structures and sound classes. The parameters selected are phonological characteristics that are acquired late in development among English-speaking children. In the WCM-SE, complexity parameters in the domain sound classes were modified or added according to Swedish or universal patterns of phonology development. The parameters' complexity is accounted for in terms of language-general phonetic characteristics.

The development of a vocabulary for PEEPS-SE-profiles of early expressive phonological skills for Swedish.

This paper describes the development of a vocabulary for Profiles of Early Expressive Phonological Skills for Swedish (PEEPS-SE), a tool for assessment of expressive phonology in Swedish-learning children in the age range of 18-36 months. PEEPS-SE is the Swedish version of the original PEEPS, Profiles of Early Expressive Phonological Skills, which uses two age-adequate word lists-a basic word list (BWL) for the assessment of 18-24-month-old children, to which an expanded word list (EWL) is added for assessment of 24-36-month-old children, or children with more than 250 words in their expressive vocabulary. The selection of words in PEEPS-SE is based on two types of criteria: age of acquisition and phonological complexity. The words also need to be easy to elicit in a natural way in test situations. Vocabulary data previously collected with the Swedish Early Communicative Development Inventory are used for selection of age-adequate words, where the BWL contains words acquired earlier compared to the additional words in the EWL. The latter also contains words that are more phonologically complex compared to those in the BWL. Word complexity was determined by the Swedish version of word complexity measure. PEEPS-SE has made an attempt to match the original version of PEEPS in terms of both assessment method and word selection.

Ascl1 Is Required for the Development of Specific Neuronal Subtypes in the Enteric Nervous System.

The enteric nervous system (ENS) is organized into neural circuits within the gastrointestinal wall where it controls the peristaltic movements, secretion, and blood flow. Although proper gut function relies on the complex neuronal composition of the ENS, little is known about the transcriptional networks that regulate the diversification into different classes of enteric neurons and glia during development. Here we redefine the role of Ascl1 (Mash1), one of the few regulatory transcription factors described during ENS development. We show that enteric glia and all enteric neuronal subtypes appear to be derived from Ascl1-expressing progenitor cells. In the gut of Ascl1(-/-) mutant mice, neurogenesis is delayed and reduced, and posterior gliogenesis impaired. The ratio of neurons expressing Calbindin, TH, and VIP is selectively decreased while, for instance, 5-HT(+) neurons, which previously were believed to be Ascl1-dependent, are formed in normal numbers. Essentially the same differentiation defects are observed in Ascl1(KINgn2) transgenic mutants, where the proneural activity of Ngn2 replaces Ascl1, demonstrating that Ascl1 is required for the acquisition of specific enteric neuronal subtype features independent of its role in neurogenesis. In this study, we provide novel insights into the expression and function of Ascl1 in the differentiation process of specific neuronal subtypes during ENS development. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The molecular mechanisms underlying the generation of different neuronal subtypes during development of the enteric nervous system are poorly understood despite its pivotal function in gut motility and involvement in gastrointestinal pathology. This report identifies novel roles for the transcription factor Ascl1 in enteric gliogenesis and neurogenesis. Moreover, independent of its proneurogenic activity, Ascl1 is required for the normal expression of specific enteric neuronal subtype characteristics. Distinct enteric neuronal subtypes are formed in a temporally defined order, and we observe that the early-born 5-HT(+) neurons are generated in Ascl1(-/-) mutants, despite the delayed neurogenesis. Enteric nervous system progenitor cells may therefore possess strong intrinsic control over their specification at the initial waves of neurogenesis.

Pause and utterance duration in child-directed speech in relation to child vocabulary size.

This study compares parental pause and utterance duration in conversations with Swedish speaking children at age 1;6 who have either a large, typical, or small expressive vocabulary, as measured by the Swedish version of the McArthur-Bates CDI. The adjustments that parents do when they speak to children are similar across all three vocabulary groups; they use longer utterances than when speaking to adults, and respond faster to children than they do to other adults. However, overall pause duration varies with the vocabulary size of the children, and as a result durational aspects of the language environment to which the children are exposed differ between groups. Parents of children in the large vocabulary size group respond faster to child utterances than do parents of children in the typical vocabulary size group, who in turn respond faster to child utterances than do parents of children in the small vocabulary size group.

Domain-specific control of neurogenesis achieved through patterned regulation of Notch ligand expression.

Homeodomain (HD) transcription factors and components of the Notch pathway [Delta1 (Dll1), Jagged1 (Jag1) and the Fringe (Fng) proteins] are expressed in distinct progenitor domains along the dorsoventral (DV) axis of the developing spinal cord. However, the internal relationship between these two regulatory pathways has not been established. In this report we show that HD proteins act upstream of Notch signalling. Thus, HD proteins control the spatial distribution of Notch ligands and Fng proteins, whereas perturbation of the Notch pathway does not affect the regional expression of HD proteins. Loss of Dll1 or Jag1 leads to a domain-specific increase of neuronal differentiation but does not affect the establishment of progenitor domain boundaries. Moreover, gain-of-function experiments indicate that the ability of Dll1 and Jag1 to activate Notch is limited to progenitors endogenously expressing the respective ligand. Fng proteins enhance Dll1-activated Notch signalling and block Notch activation mediated by Jag1. This finding, combined with the overlapping expression of Fng with Dll1 but not with Jag1, is likely to explain the domain-specific activity of the Notch ligands. This outcome is opposite to the local regulation of Notch activity in most other systems, including the Drosophila wing, where Fng co-localizes with Jagged/Serrate rather than Dll/Delta, which facilitates Notch signalling at regional boundaries instead of within domains. The regulation of Notch activation in the spinal cord therefore appears to endow specific progenitor populations with a domain-wide autonomy in the control of neurogenesis and prevents any inadequate activation of Notch across progenitor domain boundaries.

A homeodomain feedback circuit underlies step-function interpretation of a Shh morphogen gradient during ventral neural patterning.

The deployment of morphogen gradients is a core strategy to establish cell diversity in developing tissues, but little is known about how small differences in the concentration of extracellular signals are translated into robust patterning output in responding cells. We have examined the activity of homeodomain proteins, which are presumed to operate downstream of graded Shh signaling in neural patterning, and describe a feedback circuit between the Shh pathway and homeodomain transcription factors that establishes non-graded regulation of Shh signaling activity. Nkx2 proteins intrinsically strengthen Shh responses in a feed-forward amplification and are required for ventral floor plate and p3 progenitor fates. Conversely, Pax6 has an opposing function to antagonize Shh signaling, which provides intrinsic resistance to Shh responses and is important to constrain the inductive capacity of the Shh gradient over time. Our data further suggest that patterning of floor plate cells and p3 progenitors is gated by a temporal switch in neuronal potential, rather than by different Shh concentrations. These data establish that dynamic, non-graded changes in responding cells are essential for Shh morphogen interpretation, and provide a rationale to explain mechanistically the phenomenon of cellular memory of morphogen exposure.

Quantitative Spatial Analysis of Neuroligin-3 mRNA Expression in the Enteric Nervous System Reveals a Potential Role in Neuronal-Glial Synapses and Reduced Expression in Nlgn3R451C Mice.

Mutations in the Neuroligin-3 (Nlgn3) gene are implicated in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and gastrointestinal (GI) dysfunction, but cellular Nlgn3 expression in the enteric nervous system remains to be characterised. We combined RNAScope in situ hybridization and immunofluorescence to measure Nlgn3 mRNA expression in cholinergic and VIP-expressing submucosal neurons, nitrergic and calretinin-containing myenteric neurons and glial cells in both WT and Nlgn3R451C mutant mice. We measured Nlgn3 mRNA neuronal and glial expression via quantitative three-dimensional image analysis. To validate dual RNAScope/immunofluorescence data, we interrogated available single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNASeq) data to assess for Nlgn3, Nlgn1, Nlgn2 and their binding partners, Nrxn1-3, MGDA1 and MGDA2, in enteric neural subsets. Most submucosal and myenteric neurons expressed Nlgn3 mRNA. In contrast to other Nlgns and binding partners, Nlgn3 was strongly expressed in enteric glia, suggesting a role for neuroligin-3 in mediating enteric neuron-glia interactions. The autism-associated R451C mutation reduces Nlgn3 mRNA expression in cholinergic but not in VIPergic submucosal neurons. In the myenteric plexus, Nlgn3 mRNA levels are reduced in calretinin, nNOS-labelled neurons and S100 ß -labelled glia. We provide a comprehensive cellular profile for neuroligin-3 expression in ileal neuronal subpopulations of mice expressing the R451C autism-associated mutation in Nlgn3, which may contribute to the understanding of the pathophysiology of GI dysfunction in ASD.

Control of Notch-ligand endocytosis by ligand-receptor interaction.

In Notch signaling, cell-bound ligands activate Notch receptors on juxtaposed cells, but the relationship between ligand endocytosis, ubiquitylation and ligand-receptor interaction remains poorly understood. To study the specific role of ligand-receptor interaction, we identified a missense mutant of the Notch ligand Jagged1 (Nodder, Ndr) that failed to interact with Notch receptors, but retained a cellular distribution that was similar to wild-type Jagged1 (Jagged1(WT)) in the absence of active Notch signaling. Both Jagged1(WT) and Jagged1(Ndr) interacted with the E3 ubiquitin ligase Mind bomb, but only Jagged1(WT) showed enhanced ubiquitylation after co-culture with cells expressing Notch receptor. Cells expressing Jagged1(WT), but not Jagged1(Ndr), trans-endocytosed the Notch extracellular domain (NECD) into the ligand-expressing cell, and NECD colocalized with Jagged1(WT) in early endosomes, multivesicular bodies and lysosomes, suggesting that NECD is routed through the endocytic degradation pathway. When coexpressed in the same cell, Jagged1(Ndr) did not exert a dominant-negative effect over Jagged1(WT) in terms of receptor activation. Finally, in Jag1(Ndr/Ndr) mice, the ligand was largely accumulated at the cell surface, indicating that engagement of the Notch receptor is important for ligand internalization in vivo. In conclusion, the interaction-dead Jagged1(Ndr) ligand provides new insights into the specific role of receptor-ligand interaction in the intracellular trafficking of Notch ligands.

Efficient production of mesencephalic dopamine neurons by Lmx1a expression in embryonic stem cells.

Signaling factors involved in CNS development have been used to control the differentiation of embryonic stem cells (ESCs) into mesencephalic dopamine (mesDA) neurons, but tend to generate a limited yield of desired cell type. Here we show that forced expression of Lmx1a, a transcription factor functioning as a determinant of mesDA neurons during embryogenesis, effectively can promote the generation of mesDA neurons from mouse and human ESCs. Under permissive culture conditions, 75%-95% of mouse ESC-derived neurons express molecular and physiological properties characteristic of bona fide mesDA neurons. Similar to primary mesDA neurons, these cells integrate and innervate the striatum of 6-hydroxy dopamine lesioned neonatal rats. Thus, the enriched generation of functional mesDA neurons by forced expression of Lmx1a may be of future importance in cell replacement therapy of Parkinson disease.

An Association Between Phonetic Complexity of Infant Vocalizations and Parent Vowel Hyperarticulation.

Extreme or exaggerated articulation of vowels, or vowel hyperarticulation, is a characteristic commonly found in infant-directed speech (IDS). High degrees of vowel hyperarticulation in parent IDS has been tied to better speech sound category development and bigger vocabulary size in infants. In the present study, the relationship between vowel hyperarticulation in Swedish IDS to 12-month-old and phonetic complexity of infant vocalizations is investigated. Articulatory adaptation toward hyperarticulation is quantified as difference in vowel space area between IDS and adult-directed speech (ADS). Phonetic complexity is estimated using the Word Complexity Measure for Swedish (WCM-SE). The results show that vowels in IDS was more hyperarticulated than vowels in ADS, and that parents' articulatory adaptation in terms of hyperarticulation correlates with phonetic complexity of infant vocalizations. This can be explained either by the parents' articulatory behavior impacting the infants' vocalization behavior, the infants' social and communicative cues eliciting hyperarticulation in the parents' speech, or the two variables being impacted by a third, underlying variable such as parents' general communicative adaptiveness.

Relationship Between Parent Vowel Hyperarticulation in Infant-Directed Speech and Infant Phonetic Complexity on the Level of Conversational Turns.

When speaking to infants, parents typically use infant-directed speech, a speech register that in several aspects differs from that directed to adults. Vowel hyperarticulation, that is, extreme articulation of vowels, is one characteristic sometimes found in infant-directed speech, and it has been suggested that there exists a relationship between how much vowel hyperarticulation parents use when speaking to their infant and infant language development. In this study, the relationship between parent vowel hyperarticulation and phonetic complexity of infant vocalizations is investigated. Previous research has shown that on the level of subject means, a positive correlational relationship exists. However, the previous findings do not provide information about the directionality of that relationship. In this study the relationship is investigated on a conversational turn level, which makes it possible to draw conclusions on whether the behavior of the infant is impacting the parent, the behavior of the parent is impacting the infant, or both. Parent vowel hyperarticulation was quantified using the vhh-index, a measure that allows vowel hyperarticulation to be estimated for individual vowel tokens. Phonetic complexity of infant vocalizations was calculated using the Word Complexity Measure for Swedish. Findings were unexpected in that a negative relationship was found between parent vowel hyperarticulation and phonetic complexity of the immediately following infant vocalization. Directionality was suggested by the fact that no such relationship was found between infant phonetic complexity and vowel hyperarticulation of the immediately following parent utterance. A potential explanation for these results is that high degrees of vowel hyperarticulation either provide, or co-occur with, large amounts of phonetic and/or linguistic information, which may occupy processing resources to an extent that affects production of the next vocalization.

Diversification of molecularly defined myenteric neuron classes revealed by single-cell RNA sequencing.

Autonomous regulation of the intestine requires the combined activity of functionally distinct neurons of the enteric nervous system (ENS). However, the variety of enteric neuron types and how they emerge during development remain largely unknown. Here, we define a molecular taxonomy of 12 enteric neuron classes within the myenteric plexus of the mouse small intestine using single-cell RNA sequencing. We present cell-cell communication features and histochemical markers for motor neurons, sensory neurons and interneurons, together with transgenic tools for class-specific targeting. Transcriptome analysis of the embryonic ENS uncovers a novel principle of neuronal diversification, where two neuron classes arise through a binary neurogenic branching and all other identities emerge through subsequent postmitotic differentiation. We identify generic and class-specific transcriptional regulators and functionally connect Pbx3 to a postmitotic fate transition. Our results offer a conceptual and molecular resource for dissecting ENS circuits and predicting key regulators for directed differentiation of distinct enteric neuron classes.

Pluripotent stem cell derived dopaminergic subpopulations model the selective neuron degeneration in Parkinson's disease.

In Parkinson's disease (PD), substantia nigra (SN) dopaminergic (DA) neurons degenerate, while related ventral tegmental area (VTA) DA neurons remain relatively unaffected. Here, we present a methodology that directs the differentiation of mouse and human pluripotent stem cells toward either SN- or VTA-like DA lineage and models their distinct vulnerabilities. We show that the level of WNT activity is critical for the induction of the SN- and VTA-lineage transcription factors Sox6 and Otx2, respectively. Both WNT signaling modulation and forced expression of these transcription factors can drive DA neurons toward the SN- or VTA-like fate. Importantly, the SN-like lineage enriched DA cultures recapitulate the selective sensitivity to mitochondrial toxins as observed in PD, while VTA-like neuron-enriched cultures are more resistant. Furthermore, a proteomics approach led to the identification of compounds that alter SN neuronal survival, demonstrating the utility of our strategy for disease modeling and drug discovery.

Dysregulation of the NRG1/ERBB pathway causes a developmental disorder with gastrointestinal dysmotility in humans.

Hirschsprung disease (HSCR) is the most frequent developmental anomaly of the enteric nervous system, with an incidence of 1 in 5000 live births. Chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction (CIPO) is less frequent and classified as neurogenic or myogenic. Isolated HSCR has an oligogenic inheritance with RET as the major disease-causing gene, while CIPO is genetically heterogeneous, caused by mutations in smooth muscle-specific genes. Here, we describe a series of patients with developmental disorders including gastrointestinal dysmotility, and investigate the underlying molecular bases. Trio-exome sequencing led to the identification of biallelic variants in ERBB3 and ERBB2 in 8 individuals variably associating HSCR, CIPO, peripheral neuropathy, and arthrogryposis. Thorough gut histology revealed aganglionosis, hypoganglionosis, and intestinal smooth muscle abnormalities. The cell type-specific ErbB3 and ErbB2 function was further analyzed in mouse single-cell RNA sequencing data and in a conditional ErbB3-deficient mouse model, revealing a primary role for ERBB3 in enteric progenitors. The consequences of the identified variants were evaluated using quantitative real-time PCR (RT-qPCR) on patient-derived fibroblasts or immunoblot assays on Neuro-2a cells overexpressing WT or mutant proteins, revealing either decreased expression or altered phosphorylation of the mutant receptors. Our results demonstrate that dysregulation of ERBB3 or ERBB2 leads to a broad spectrum of developmental anomalies, including intestinal dysmotility.

Schwann Cell Precursors Generate the Majority of Chromaffin Cells in Zuckerkandl Organ and Some Sympathetic Neurons in Paraganglia.

In humans, neurosecretory chromaffin cells control a number of important bodily functions, including those related to stress response. Chromaffin cells appear as a distinct cell type at the beginning of midgestation and are the main cellular source of adrenalin and noradrenalin released into the blood stream. In mammals, two different chromaffin organs emerge at a close distance to each other, the adrenal gland and Zuckerkandl organ (ZO). These two structures are found in close proximity to the kidneys and dorsal aorta, in a region where paraganglioma, pheochromocytoma and neuroblastoma originate in the majority of clinical cases. Recent studies showed that the chromaffin cells comprising the adrenal medulla are largely derived from nerve-associated multipotent Schwann cell precursors (SCPs) arriving at the adrenal anlage with the preganglionic nerve fibers, whereas the migratory neural crest cells provide only minor contribution. However, the embryonic origin of the ZO, which differs from the adrenal medulla in a number of aspects, has not been studied in detail. The ZO is composed of chromaffin cells in direct contact with the dorsal aorta and the intraperitoneal cavity and disappears through an autophagy-mediated mechanism after birth. In contrast, the adrenal medulla remains throughout the entire life and furthermore, is covered by the adrenal cortex. Using a combination of lineage tracing strategies with nerve- and cell type-specific ablations, we reveal that the ZO is largely SCP-derived and forms in synchrony with progressively increasing innervation. Moreover, the ZO develops hand-in-hand with the adjacent sympathetic ganglia that coalesce around the dorsal aorta. Finally, we were able to provide evidence for a SCP-contribution to a small but significant proportion of sympathetic neurons of the posterior paraganglia. Thus, this cellular source complements the neural crest, which acts as a main source of sympathetic neurons. Our discovery of a nerve-dependent origin of chromaffin cells and some sympathoblasts may help to understand the origin of pheochromocytoma, paraganglioma and neuroblastoma, all of which are currently thought to be derived from the neural crest or committed sympathoadrenal precursors.

Lmx1b is essential for the development of serotonergic neurons.

The specification and differentiation of serotonergic (5-HT) neurons require both extrinsic signaling molecules and intrinsic transcription factors to work in concert or in cascade. Here we identify the genetic cascades that control the specification and differentiation of 5-HT neurons in mice. A major determinant in the cascades is an LIM homeodomain-containing gene, Lmx1b, which is required for the development of all 5-HT neurons in the central nervous system. Our results suggest that, during development of 5-HT neurons, Lmx1b is a critical intermediate factor that couples Nkx2-2-mediated early specification with Pet1-mediated terminal differentiation. Moreover, our data indicate that genetic cascades controlling the caudal and rostral 5-HT neurons are distinct, despite their shared components.

Signals from the brain and olfactory epithelium control shaping of the mammalian nasal capsule cartilage.

Facial shape is the basis for facial recognition and categorization. Facial features reflect the underlying geometry of the skeletal structures. Here, we reveal that cartilaginous nasal capsule (corresponding to upper jaw and face) is shaped by signals generated by neural structures: brain and olfactory epithelium. Brain-derived Sonic Hedgehog (SHH) enables the induction of nasal septum and posterior nasal capsule, whereas the formation of a capsule roof is controlled by signals from the olfactory epithelium. Unexpectedly, the cartilage of the nasal capsule turned out to be important for shaping membranous facial bones during development. This suggests that conserved neurosensory structures could benefit from protection and have evolved signals inducing cranial cartilages encasing them. Experiments with mutant mice revealed that the genomic regulatory regions controlling production of SHH in the nervous system contribute to facial cartilage morphogenesis, which might be a mechanism responsible for the adaptive evolution of animal faces and snouts.