Differential modulation of ROS signals and other mitochondrial parameters by the antioxidants MitoQ, resveratrol and curcumin in human adipocytes.

Mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been demonstrated to play an important role as signaling and regulating molecules in human adipocytes. In order to evaluate the differential modulating roles of antioxidants, we treated human adipocytes differentiated from human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells with MitoQ, resveratrol and curcumin. The effects on ROS, viability, mitochondrial respiration and intracellular ATP levels were examined. MitoQ lowered both oxidizing and reducing ROS. Resveratrol decreased reducing and curcumin oxidizing radicals only. All three substances slightly decreased state III respiration immediately after addition. After 24 h of treatment, MitoQ inhibited both basal and uncoupled oxygen consumption, whereas curcumin and resveratrol had no effect. Intracellular ATP levels were not altered. This demonstrates that MitoQ, resveratrol and curcumin exert potent modulating effects on ROS signaling in human adipocyte with marginal effects on metabolic parameters.

Susceptibility to simvastatin-induced toxicity is partly determined by mitochondrial respiration and phosphorylation state of Akt.

Statins are widely used to prevent cardiovascular diseases. They are well-tolerated, with side-effects mainly seen in skeletal muscle. How these side-effects are caused is unknown. We compared isolated primary mouse skeletal muscle myocytes, C2C12 myotubes and liver HepG2 cells to detect differences that could uncover why statins are toxic in skeletal muscle but less so in the liver. 10µM simvastatin caused a decrease in mitochondrial respiration in the primary mouse myocytes and C2C12 myotubes, but had no effect in the HepG2 cells. Mitochondrial integrity is maintained by multiple signaling pathways. One of these pathways, Igf-1/Akt signaling, is also heavily implicated in causing statin-induced toxicity by upregulating atrogin-1. We found that phosphorylated Akt was reduced in C2C12 myotubes but not in HepG2 cells. HepG2 mitochondrial respiration became susceptible to simvastatin-treatment after Akt inhibition, and mitochondrial respiration was rescued in Igf-1-treated C2C12 myotubes. These results suggest that disruption of Igf-1/Akt signaling is a causative factor in simvastatin-induced mitochondrial dysfunction in C2C12 myotubes, whereas HepG2 cells are protected by maintaining Igf-1/Akt signaling. We conclude that phosphorylation of Akt is a key indicator of susceptibility to statin-induced toxicity. How statins can disrupt Igf-1/Akt signaling is unknown. Statins reduce geranylgeranylation of small GTPases, such as Rap1. Previous studies implicate Rap1 as a link between cAMP/Epac and Igf-1/Akt signaling. Transient transfection of constitutively active Rap1 into C2C12 myotubes led to a partial rescue of simvastatin-induced inhibition of mitochondrial respiration, providing a novel link between signaling and respiration.

Comparison of Liver Cell Models Using the Basel Phenotyping Cocktail.

Currently used hepatocyte cell systems for in vitro assessment of drug metabolism include hepatoma cell lines and primary human hepatocyte (PHH) cultures. We investigated the suitability of the validated in vivo Basel phenotyping cocktail (caffeine [CYP1A2], efavirenz [CYP2B6], losartan [CYP2C9], omeprazole [CYP2C19], metoprolol [CYP2D6], midazolam [CYP3A4]) in vitro and characterized four hepatocyte cell systems (HepG2 cells, HepaRG cells, and primary cryopreserved human hepatocytes in 2-dimensional [2D] culture or in 3D-spheroid co-culture) regarding basal metabolism and CYP inducibility. Under non-induced conditions, all CYP activities could be determined in 3D-PHH, CYP2B6, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, and CYP3A4 in 2D-PHH and HepaRG, and CYP2C19 and CYP3A4 in HepG2 cells. The highest non-induced CYP activities were observed in 3D-PHH and HepaRG cells. mRNA expression was at least four-fold higher for all CYPs in 3D-PHH compared to the other cell systems. After treatment with 20 µM rifampicin, mRNA increased 3- to 50-fold for all CYPs except CYP1A2 and 2D6 for HepaRG and 3D-PHH, 4-fold (CYP2B6) and 17-fold (CYP3A4) for 2D-PHH and four-fold (CYP3A4) for HepG2. In 3D-PHH at least a two-fold increase in CYP activity was observed for all inducible CYP isoforms while CYP1A2 and CYP2C9 activity did not increase in 2D-PHH and HepaRG. CYP inducibility assessed in vivo using the same phenotyping probes was also best reflected by the 3D-PHH model. Our studies show that 3D-PHH and (with some limitations) HepaRG are suitable cell systems for assessing drug metabolism and CYP induction in vitro. HepG2 cells are less suited to assess CYP induction of the 2C and 3A family. The Basel phenotyping cocktail is suitable for the assessment of CYP activity and induction also in vitro.

Toxicity of thienopyridines on human neutrophil granulocytes and lymphocytes.

Thienopyridines can cause neutropenia and agranulocytosis. The aim of the current investigations was to compare cytotoxicity of ticlopidine, clopidogrel, clopidogrel carboxylate and prasugrel for human neutrophil granulocytes with the toxicity for lymphocytes and to investigate underlying mechanisms. For granulocytes, clopidogrel, ticlopidine, clopidogrel carboxylate and prasugrel were concentration-dependently toxic starting at 10µM. Cytotoxicity could be prevented by the myeloperoxidase inhibitor rutin, but not by the cytochrome P450 inhibitor ketoconazole. All compounds were also toxic for lymphocytes, but cytotoxicity started at 100µM and could not be prevented by rutin or ketoconazole. Granulocytes metabolized ticlopidine, clopidogrel, clopidogrel carboxylate and prasugrel, and metabolization was inhibited by rutin, but not by ketoconazole. Metabolism of these compounds by lymphocytes was much slower and could not be inhibited by ketoconazole or rutin. In neutrophils, all compounds investigated decreased the electrical potential across the inner mitochondrial membrane, were associated with cellular accumulation of ROS, mitochondrial loss of cytochrome c and induction of apoptosis starting at 10µM. All of these effects could be inhibited by rutin, but not by ketoconazole. Similar findings were obtained in lymphocytes; but compared to neutrophils, the effects were detectable only at higher concentrations and were not inhibited by rutin. In conclusion, ticlopidine, clopidogrel, clopidogrel carboxylate and prasugrel are toxic for both granulocytes and lymphocytes. In granulocytes, cytotoxicity is more accentuated than in lymphocytes and depends on metabolization by myeloperoxidase. These findings suggest a mitochondrial mechanism for cytotoxicity for both myeloperoxidase-associated metabolites and, at higher concentrations, also for the parent compounds.

Hepatocellular toxicity of clopidogrel: mechanisms and risk factors.

Clopidogrel is a prodrug used widely as a platelet aggregation inhibitor. After intestinal absorption, approximately 90% is converted to inactive clopidogrel carboxylate and 10% via a two-step procedure to the active metabolite containing a mercapto group. Hepatotoxicity is a rare but potentially serious adverse reaction associated with clopidogrel. The aim of this study was to find out the mechanisms and susceptibility factors for clopidogrel-associated hepatotoxicity. In primary human hepatocytes, clopidogrel (10 and 100 µM) was cytotoxic only after cytochrome P450 (CYP) induction by rifampicin. Clopidogrel (10 and 100 µM) was also toxic for HepG2 cells expressing human CYP3A4 (HepG2/CYP3A4) and HepG2 cells co-incubated with CYP3A4 supersomes (HepG2/CYP3A4 supersome), but not for wild-type HepG2 cells (HepG2/wt). Clopidogrel (100 µM) decreased the cellular glutathione content in HepG2/CYP3A4 supersome and triggered an oxidative stress reaction (10 and 100 µM) in HepG2/CYP3A4, but not in HepG2/wt. Glutathione depletion significantly increased the cytotoxicity of clopidogrel (10 and 100 µM) in HepG2/CYP3A4 supersome. Co-incubation with 1 µM ketoconazole or 10mM glutathione almost completely prevented the cytotoxic effect of clopidogrel in HepG2/CYP3A4 and HepG2/CYP3A4 supersome. HepG2/CYP3A4 incubated with 100 µM clopidogrel showed mitochondrial damage and cytochrome c release, eventually promoting apoptosis and/or necrosis. In contrast to clopidogrel, clopidogrel carboxylate was not toxic for HepG2/wt or HepG2/CYP3A4 up to 100 µM. In conclusion, clopidogrel incubated with CYP3A4 is associated with the formation of metabolites that are toxic for hepatocytes and can be trapped by glutathione. High CYP3A4 activity and low cellular glutathione stores may be risk factors for clopidogrel-associated hepatocellular toxicity.

Toxicity of clopidogrel and ticlopidine on human myeloid progenitor cells: importance of metabolites.

Ticlopidine and clopidogrel are thienopyridine derivatives used for inhibition of platelet aggregation. Not only hepatotoxicity, but also bone marrow toxicity may limit their use. Aims of the study were to find out whether non-metabolized drug and/or metabolites are responsible for myelotoxicity and whether the inactive clopidogrel metabolite clopidogrel carboxylate contributes to myelotoxicity. We used myeloid progenitor cells isolated from human umbilical cord blood in a colony-forming unit assay to assess cytotoxicity. Degradation of clopidogrel, clopidogrel carboxylate or ticlopidine (studied at 10 and 100 µM) was monitored using LC/MS. Clopidogrel and ticlopidine were both dose-dependently cytotoxic starting at 10 µM. This was not the case for the major clopidogrel metabolite clopidogrel carboxylate. Pre-incubation with recombinant human CYP3A4 not only caused degradation of clopidogrel and ticlopidine, but also increased cytotoxicity. In contrast, clopidogrel carboxylate was not metabolized by recombinant human CYP3A4. Pre-incubation with freshly isolated human granulocytes was not only associated with a myeloperoxidase-dependent degradation of clopidogrel, clopidogrel carboxylate and ticlopidine, but also with dose-dependent cytotoxicity of these compounds starting at 10 µM. In conclusion, both non-metabolized clopidogrel and ticlopidine as well as metabolites of these compounds are toxic towards myeloid progenitor cells. Taking exposure data in humans into account, the myelotoxic element of clopidogrel therapy is likely to be secondary to the formation of metabolites from clopidogrel carboxylate by myeloperoxidase. Concerning ticlopidine, both the parent compound and metabolites formed by myeloperoxidase may be myelotoxic in vivo. The molecular mechanisms of cytotoxicity have to be investigated in further studies.

The role of CYP3A4 in amiodarone-associated toxicity on HepG2 cells.

Amiodarone is a class III antiarrhythmic drug with potentially life-threatening hepatotoxicity. Recent in vitro investigations suggested that the mono-N-desethyl (MDEA) and di-N-desethyl (DDEA) metabolites may cause amiodarone's hepatotoxicity. Since cytochrome P450 (CYP) 3A4 is responsible for amiodarone N-deethylation, CYP3A4 induction may represent a risk factor. Our aim was therefore to investigate the role of CYP3A4 in amiodarone-associated hepatotoxicity. First, we showed that 50µM amiodarone is more toxic to primary human hepatocytes after CYP induction with rifampicin. Second, we overexpressed human CYP3A4 in HepG2 cells (HepG2 cells/CYP3A4) for studying the interaction between CYP3A4 and amiodarone in more detail. We also used HepG2 wild type cells (HepG2 cells/wt) co-incubated with human CYP3A4 supersomes for amiodarone activation (HepG2 cells/CYP3A4 supersomes). Amiodarone (10-50µM) was cytotoxic for HepG2 cells/CYP3A4 or HepG2 cells/CYP3A4 supersomes, but not for HepG2 cells/wt or less toxic for HepG2 cells/wt incubated with control supersomes without CYP3A4. Co-incubation with ketoconazole, attenuated cytotoxicity of amiodarone incubated with HepG2 cells/CYP3A4 or HepG2 cells/CYP3A4 supersomes. MDEA and DDEA were formed only in incubations containing HepG2 cells/CYP3A4 or HepG2 cells/CYP3A4 supersomes but not by HepG2 cells/wt or HepG2 cells/wt with control supersomes. Metabolized amiodarone triggered the production of reactive oxygen species, induced mitochondrial damage and cytochrome c release, and promoted apoptosis/necrosis in HepG2 cells/CYP3A4, but not HepG2 cells/wt. This study supports the hypothesis that a high CYP3A4 activity is a risk factor for amiodarone's hepatotoxicity. Since CYP3A4 inducers are used frequently and amiodarone-associated hepatotoxicity can be fatal, our observations may be clinically relevant.