Drought stress-inducible synthetic promoters designed for poplar are functional in rice.

KEY MESSAGE: Water deficit-inducible synthetic promoters, SD9-2 and SD18-1, designed for use in the dicot poplar, are functional in the monocot crop, rice.

GmSABP2-1 encodes methyl salicylate esterase and functions in soybean defense against soybean cyst nematode.

KEY MESSAGE: The soybean gene GmSABP2-1 encodes methyl salicylate esterase and its overexpression led to significant reduction in development of pathogenic soybean cyst nematode. Soybean cyst nematode (SCN, Heterodera glycines) is one of the most devastating pests of soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.). In searching for SCN-defense genes, a soybean gene of the methylesterase (MES) family was found to be upregulated in an SCN-resistant soybean line and downregulated in an SCN-susceptible line upon SCN infection. This gene was designated as GmSABP2-1. Here, we report on biochemical and overexpression studies of GmSABP2-1 to examine its possible function in SCN resistance. The protein encoded by GmSABP2-1 is closely related to known methyl salicylate esterases. To determine the biochemical function of GmSABP2-1, a full-length cDNA of GmSABP2-1 was cloned into a protein expression vector and expressed in Escherichia coli. The resulting recombinant GmSABP2-1 was demonstrated to catalyze the demethylation of methyl salicylate. The biochemical properties of GmSABP2-1 were determined. Its apparent Km value was 46.2 ± 2.2 µM for methyl salicylate, comparable to those of the known methyl salicylate esterases. To explore the biological significance of GmSABP2-1 in soybean defense against SCN, we first overexpressed GmSABP2-1 in transgenic hairy roots of an SCN-susceptible soybean line. When infected with SCN, GmSABP2-1-overexpressing hairy roots showed 84.5% reduction in the development of SCN beyond J2 stage. To provide further genetic evidence for the role of GmSABP2-1 in SCN resistance, stable transgenic soybean plants overexpressing GmSABP2-1 were produced. Analysis of the GmSABP2-1-overexpressing lines showed a significant reduction in SCN development compared to non-transgenic plants. In conclusion, we demonstrated that GmSABP2-1 encodes methyl salicylate esterase and functions as a resistance-related gene against SCN.

Proteinase inhibitors in legume herbivore defense: from natural to genetically engineered protectants.

Proteinase inhibitors (PIs) from legumes have the potential for use as protectants in response to pests and pathogens. Legumes have evolved PIs that inhibit digestive proteinases upon herbivory resulting in delayed development, deformities, and reduced fertility of herbivorous insects. Legume PIs (serine proteinase inhibitors and cysteine proteinase inhibitors) have been overexpressed in plants to confer plant protection against herbivores. Recently, the co-expression of multiple PIs in transgenic plants enhanced host defense over single PI expression, i.e., in an additive fashion. Therefore, a synthetic PI could conceivably be designed using different inhibitory domains that may provide multifunctional protection. Little attention has yet given to expanding PI gene repertoires to improve PI efficacy for targeting multiple proteinases. Also, PIs have been shown to play an important role in response to abiotic stresses. Previously published papers have presented several aspects of strategic deployment of PIs in transgenic plants, which is the focus of this review by providing a comprehensive update of the recent progress of using PIs in transgenic plants. We also emphasize broadening the potential usefulness of PIs and their future direction in research, which will likely result in a more potent defense against herbivores.

Identification of introduced and stably inherited DNA methylation variants in soybean associated with soybean cyst nematode parasitism.

DNA methylation is a widespread epigenetic mark that contributes to transcriptome reprogramming during plant-pathogen interactions. However, the distinct role of DNA methylation in establishing resistant and susceptible responses remains largely unexplored. Here, we developed and used a pair of near-isogenic lines (NILs) to characterize DNA methylome landscapes of soybean roots during the susceptible and resistant interactions with soybean cyst nematode (SCN; Heterodera glycines). We also compared the methylomes of the NILs and their parents to identify introduced and stably inherited methylation variants. The genomes of the NILs were substantially differentially methylated under uninfected conditions. This difference was associated with differential gene expression that may prime the NIL responses to SCN infection. In response to SCN infection, the susceptible line exhibited reduced global methylation levels in both protein-coding genes and transposable elements, whereas the resistant line showed the opposite response, increased global methylation levels. Heritable and novel nonparental differentially methylated regions overlapping with genes associated with soybean response to SCN infection were identified and validated using transgenic hairy root system. Our analyses indicate that DNA methylation patterns associated with the susceptible and resistant interactions are highly specific and that novel and stably inherited methylation variants are of biological significance.

Lipofection-mediated genome editing using DNA-free delivery of the Cas9/gRNA ribonucleoprotein into plant cells.

KEY MESSAGE: A novel and robust lipofection-mediated transfection approach for the use of DNA-free Cas9/gRNA RNP for gene editing has demonstrated efficacy in plant cells. Precise genome editing has been revolutionized by CRISPR/Cas9 systems. DNA-based delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 is widely used in various plant species. However, protein-based delivery of the in vitro translated Cas9/guide RNA (gRNA) ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex into plant cells is still in its infancy even though protein delivery has several advantages. These advantages include DNA-free delivery, gene-edited host plants that are not transgenic, ease of use, low cost, relative ease to be adapted to high-throughput systems, and low off-target cleavage rates. Here, we show a novel lipofection-mediated transfection approach for protein delivery of the preassembled Cas9/gRNA RNP into plant cells for genome editing. Two lipofection reagents, Lipofectamine 3000 and RNAiMAX, were adapted for successful delivery into plant cells of Cas9/gRNA RNP. A green fluorescent protein (GFP) reporter was fused in-frame with the C-terminus of the Cas9 protein and the fusion protein was successfully delivered into non-transgenic tobacco cv. 'Bright Yellow-2' (BY2) protoplasts. The optimal efficiencies for Lipofectamine 3000- and RNAiMAX-mediated protein delivery were 66% and 48%, respectively. Furthermore, we developed a biolistic method for protein delivery based on the known proteolistics technique. A transgenic tobacco BY2 line expressing an orange fluorescence protein reporter pporRFP was targeted for knockout. We found that the targeted mutagenesis frequency for our Lipofectamine 3000-mediated protein delivery was 6%. Our results showed that the newly developed lipofection-mediated transfection approach is robust for the use of the DNA-free Cas9/gRNA technology for genome editing in plant cells.

Transgenic miR156 switchgrass in the field: growth, recalcitrance and rust susceptibility.

Sustainable utilization of lignocellulosic perennial grass feedstocks will be enabled by high biomass production and optimized cell wall chemistry for efficient conversion into biofuels. MicroRNAs are regulatory elements that modulate the expression of genes involved in various biological functions in plants, including growth and development. In greenhouse studies, overexpressing a microRNA (miR156) gene in switchgrass had dramatic effects on plant architecture and flowering, which appeared to be driven by transgene expression levels. High expressing lines were extremely dwarfed, whereas low and moderate-expressing lines had higher biomass yields, improved sugar release and delayed flowering. Four lines with moderate or low miR156 overexpression from the prior greenhouse study were selected for a field experiment to assess the relationship between miR156 expression and biomass production over three years. We also analysed important bioenergy feedstock traits such as flowering, disease resistance, cell wall chemistry and biofuel production. Phenotypes of the transgenic lines were inconsistent between the greenhouse and the field as well as among different field growing seasons. One low expressing transgenic line consistently produced more biomass (25%-56%) than the control across all three seasons, which translated to the production of 30% more biofuel per plant during the final season. The other three transgenic lines produced less biomass than the control by the final season, and the two lines with moderate expression levels also exhibited altered disease susceptibilities. Results of this study emphasize the importance of performing multiyear field studies for plants with altered regulatory transgenes that target plant growth and development.

A profilin gene promoter from switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) directs strong and specific transgene expression to vascular bundles in rice.

KEY MESSAGE: A switchgrass vascular tissue-specific promoter (PvPfn2) and its 5'-end serial deletions drive high levels of vascular bundle transgene expression in transgenic rice. Constitutive promoters are widely used for crop genetic engineering, which can result in multiple off-target effects, including suboptimal growth and epigenetic gene silencing. These problems can be potentially avoided using tissue-specific promoters for targeted transgene expression. One particularly urgent need for targeted cell wall modification in bioenergy crops, such as switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.), is the development of vasculature-active promoters to express cell wall-affective genes only in the specific tissues, i.e., xylem and phloem. From a switchgrass expression atlas we identified promoter sequence upstream of a vasculature-specific switchgrass profilin gene (PvPfn2), especially in roots, nodes and inflorescences. When the putative full-length (1715 bp) and 5'-end serial deletions of the PvPfn2 promoter (shortest was 413 bp) were used to drive the GUS reporter expression in stably transformed rice (Oryza sativa L.), strong vasculature-specificity was observed in various tissues including leaves, leaf sheaths, stems, and flowers. The promoters were active in both phloem and xylem. It is interesting to note that the promoter was active in many more tissues in the heterologous rice system than in switchgrass. Surprisingly, all four 5'-end promoter deletions, including the shortest fragment, had the same expression patterns as the full-length promoter and with no attenuation in GUS expression in rice. These results indicated that the PvPfn2 promoter variants are new tools to direct transgene expression specifically to vascular tissues in monocots. Of special interest is the very compact version of the promoter, which could be of use for vasculature-specific genetic engineering in monocots.

An (E,E)-α-farnesene synthase gene of soybean has a role in defence against nematodes and is involved in synthesizing insect-induced volatiles.

Plant terpene synthase genes (TPSs) have roles in diverse biological processes. Here, we report the functional characterization of one member of the soybean TPS gene family, which was designated GmAFS. Recombinant GmAFS produced in Escherichia coli catalysed the formation of a sesquiterpene (E,E)-α-farnesene. GmAFS is closely related to (E,E)-α-farnesene synthase gene from apple, both phylogenetically and structurally. GmAFS was further investigated for its biological role in defence against nematodes and insects. Soybean cyst nematode (SCN) is the most important pathogen of soybean. The expression of GmAFS in a SCN-resistant soybean was significantly induced by SCN infection compared with the control, whereas its expression in a SCN-susceptible soybean was not changed by SCN infection. Transgenic hairy roots overexpressing GmAFS under the control of the CaMV 35S promoter were generated in an SCN-susceptible soybean line. The transgenic lines showed significantly higher resistance to SCN, which indicates that GmAFS contributes to the resistance of soybean to SCN. In soybean leaves, the expression of GmAFS was found to be induced by Tetranychus urticae (two-spotted spider mites). Exogenous application of methyl jasmonate to soybean plants also induced the expression of GmAFS in leaves. Using headspace collection combined with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis, soybean plants that were infested with T. urticae were shown to emit a mixture of volatiles with (E,E)-α-farnesene as one of the most abundant constituents. In summary, this study showed that GmAFS has defence roles in both below-ground and above-ground organs of soybean against nematodes and insects, respectively.

Transgenic switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) targeted for reduced recalcitrance to bioconversion: a 2-year comparative analysis of field-grown lines modified for target gene or genetic element expression.

Transgenic Panicum virgatum L. silencing (KD) or overexpressing (OE) specific genes or a small RNA (GAUT4-KD, miRNA156-OE, MYB4-OE, COMT-KD and FPGS-KD) was grown in the field and aerial tissue analysed for biofuel production traits. Clones representing independent transgenic lines were established and senesced tissue was sampled after year 1 and 2 growth cycles. Biomass was analysed for wall sugars, recalcitrance to enzymatic digestibility and biofuel production using separate hydrolysis and fermentation. No correlation was found between plant carbohydrate content and biofuel production pointing to overriding structural and compositional elements that influence recalcitrance. Biomass yields were greater for all lines in the second year as plants establish in the field and standard amounts of biomass analysed from each line had more glucan, xylan and less ethanol (g/g basis) in the second- versus the first-year samples, pointing to a broad increase in tissue recalcitrance after regrowth from the perennial root. However, biomass from second-year growth of transgenics targeted for wall modification, GAUT4-KD, MYB4-OE, COMT-KD and FPGS-KD, had increased carbohydrate and ethanol yields (up to 12% and 21%, respectively) compared with control samples. The parental plant lines were found to have a significant impact on recalcitrance which can be exploited in future strategies. This summarizes progress towards generating next-generation bio-feedstocks with improved properties for microbial and enzymatic deconstruction, while providing a comprehensive quantitative analysis for the bioconversion of multiple plant lines in five transgenic strategies.

Transgenic soybean overexpressing GmSAMT1 exhibits resistance to multiple-HG types of soybean cyst nematode Heterodera glycines.

Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) salicylic acid methyl transferase (GmSAMT1) catalyses the conversion of salicylic acid to methyl salicylate. Prior results showed that when GmSAMT1 was overexpressed in transgenic soybean hairy roots, resistance is conferred against soybean cyst nematode (SCN), Heterodera glycines Ichinohe. In this study, we produced transgenic soybean overexpressing GmSAMT1 and characterized their response to various SCN races. Transgenic plants conferred a significant reduction in the development of SCN HG type 1.2.5.7 (race 2), HG type 0 (race 3) and HG type 2.5.7 (race 5). Among transgenic lines, GmSAMT1 expression in roots was positively associated with SCN resistance. In some transgenic lines, there was a significant decrease in salicylic acid titer relative to control plants. No significant seed yield differences were observed between transgenics and control soybean plants grown in one greenhouse with 22 °C day/night temperature, whereas transgenic soybean had higher yield than controls grown a warmer greenhouse (27 °C day/23 °C night) temperature. In a 1-year field experiment in Knoxville, TN, there was no significant difference in seed yield between the transgenic and nontransgenic soybean under conditions with negligible SCN infection. We hypothesize that GmSAMT1 expression affects salicylic acid biosynthesis, which, in turn, attenuates SCN development, without negative consequences to soybean yield or other morphological traits. Thus, we conclude that GmSAMT1 overexpression confers broad resistance to multiple SCN races, which would be potentially applicable to commercial production.

The Methylome of Soybean Roots during the Compatible Interaction with the Soybean Cyst Nematode.

The soybean cyst nematode (SCN; Heterodera glycines) induces the formation of a multinucleated feeding site, or syncytium, whose etiology includes massive gene expression changes. Nevertheless, the genetic networks underlying gene expression control in the syncytium are poorly understood. DNA methylation is a critical epigenetic mark that plays a key role in regulating gene expression. To determine the extent to which DNA methylation is altered in soybean (Glycine max) roots during the susceptible interaction with SCN, we generated whole-genome cytosine methylation maps at single-nucleotide resolution. The methylome analysis revealed that SCN induces hypomethylation to a much higher extent than hypermethylation. We identified 2,465 differentially hypermethylated regions and 4,692 hypomethylated regions in the infected roots compared with the noninfected control. In addition, 703 and 1,346 unique genes were identified as overlapping with hyper- or hypomethylated regions, respectively. The differential methylation in genes apparently occurs independently of gene size and GC content but exhibits strong preference for recently duplicated paralogs. Furthermore, a set of 278 genes was identified as specifically syncytium differentially methylated genes. Of these, we found genes associated with epigenetic regulation, phytohormone signaling, cell wall architecture, signal transduction, and ubiquitination. This study provides, to our knowledge, new evidence that differential methylation is part of the regulatory mechanisms controlling gene expression changes in the nematode-induced syncytium.

A genomics approach to deciphering lignin biosynthesis in switchgrass.

It is necessary to overcome recalcitrance of the biomass to saccharification (sugar release) to make switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) economically viable as a feedstock for liquid biofuels. Lignin content correlates negatively with sugar release efficiency in switchgrass, but selecting the right gene candidates for engineering lignin biosynthesis in this tetraploid outcrossing species is not straightforward. To assist this endeavor, we have used an inducible switchgrass cell suspension system for studying lignin biosynthesis in response to exogenous brassinolide. By applying a combination of protein sequence phylogeny with whole-genome microarray analyses of induced cell cultures and developing stem internode sections, we have generated a list of candidate monolignol biosynthetic genes for switchgrass. Several genes that were strongly supported through our bioinformatics analysis as involved in lignin biosynthesis were confirmed by gene silencing studies, in which lignin levels were reduced as a result of targeting a single gene. However, candidate genes encoding enzymes involved in the early steps of the currently accepted monolignol biosynthesis pathway in dicots may have functionally redundant paralogues in switchgrass and therefore require further evaluation. This work provides a blueprint and resources for the systematic genome-wide study of the monolignol pathway in switchgrass, as well as other C4 monocot species.

Identification and overexpression of gibberellin 2-oxidase (GA2ox) in switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) for improved plant architecture and reduced biomass recalcitrance.

Gibberellin 2-oxidases (GA2oxs) are a group of 2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases that catalyse the deactivation of bioactive GA or its precursors through 2ß-hydroxylation reaction. In this study, putatively novel switchgrass C20 GA2ox genes were identified with the aim of genetically engineering switchgrass for improved architecture and reduced biomass recalcitrance for biofuel. Three C20 GA2ox genes showed differential regulation patterns among tissues including roots, seedlings and reproductive parts. Using a transgenic approach, we showed that overexpression of two C20 GA2ox genes, that is PvGA2ox5 and PvGA2ox9, resulted in characteristic GA-deficient phenotypes with dark-green leaves and modified plant architecture. The changes in plant morphology appeared to be associated with GA2ox transcript abundance. Exogenous application of GA rescued the GA-deficient phenotypes in transgenic lines. Transgenic semi-dwarf lines displayed increased tillering and reduced lignin content, and the syringyl/guaiacyl lignin monomer ratio accompanied by the reduced expression of lignin biosynthetic genes compared to nontransgenic plants. A moderate increase in the level of glucose release in these transgenic lines might be attributed to reduced biomass recalcitrance as a result of reduced lignin content and lignin composition. Our results suggest that overexpression of GA2ox genes in switchgrass is a feasible strategy to improve plant architecture and reduce biomass recalcitrance for biofuel.

The performance of pathogenic bacterial phytosensing transgenic tobacco in the field.

Phytosensors are useful for rapid-on-the-plant detection of contaminants and agents that cause plant stress. Previously, we produced a series of plant pathogen-inducible synthetic promoters fused to an orange fluorescent protein (OFP) reporter gene and transformed them into tobacco and Arabidopsis thaliana plants; in these transgenic lines, an OFP signal is expressed commensurate with the presence of plant pathogens. We report here the results of 2 years of field experiments using a subset of these bacterial phytosensing tobacco plants. Time-course analysis of field-grown phytosensors showed that a subset of plants responded predictably to treatments with Pseudomonas phytopathogens. There was a twofold induction in the OFP fluorescence driven by two distinct salicylic acid-responsive synthetic promoters, 4 × PR1 and 4 × SARE. Most notably, transgenic plants containing 4 × PR1 displayed the earliest and highest OFP induction at 48 and 72 h postinoculation (h p.i.) upon inoculation with two phytopathogens Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato and P. syringae pv. tabaci, respectively. These results demonstrate transgenic tobacco harbouring a synthetic inducible promoter-driven OFP could be used to facilitate monitoring and early-warning reporting of phytopathogen infections in agricultural fields.

Computational discovery of soybean promoter cis-regulatory elements for the construction of soybean cyst nematode-inducible synthetic promoters.

Computational methods offer great hope but limited accuracy in the prediction of functional cis-regulatory elements; improvements are needed to enable synthetic promoter design. We applied an ensemble strategy for de novo soybean cyst nematode (SCN)-inducible motif discovery among promoters of 18 co-expressed soybean genes that were selected from six reported microarray studies involving a compatible soybean-SCN interaction. A total of 116 overlapping motif regions (OMRs) were discovered bioinformatically that were identified by at least four out of seven bioinformatic tools. Using synthetic promoters, the inducibility of each OMR or motif itself was evaluated by co-localization of gain of function of an orange fluorescent protein reporter and the presence of SCN in transgenic soybean hairy roots. Among 16 OMRs detected from two experimentally confirmed SCN-inducible promoters, 11 OMRs (i.e. 68.75%) were experimentally confirmed to be SCN-inducible, leading to the discovery of 23 core motifs of 5- to 7-bp length, of which 14 are novel in plants. We found that a combination of the three best tools (i.e. SCOPE, W-AlignACE and Weeder) could detect all 23 core motifs. Thus, this strategy is a high-throughput approach for de novo motif discovery in soybean and offers great potential for novel motif discovery and synthetic promoter engineering for any plant and trait in crop biotechnology.

Synthetic TAL effectors for targeted enhancement of transgene expression in plants.

Transcription activator-like effectors (TALEs), secreted by the pathogenic bacteria Xanthomonas, specifically activate expression of targeted genes in plants. Here, we designed synthetic TALEs that bind to the flanking regions of the TATA-box motif on the CaMV 35S promoter for the purpose of understanding the engineerable 'hot-spots' for increasing transgene expression. We demonstrated that transient expression of de novo-engineered TALEs using agroinfiltration could significantly increase reporter gene expression in stable transgenic tobacco expressing the orange fluorescent protein reporter gene pporRFP under the control of synthetic inducible, minimal or full-length 35S promoters. Moreover, the additive effects of a combination of two different synthetic TALEs could significantly enhance the activation effects of TALEs on reporter gene expression more than when each TALE was used individually. We also studied the effects of the C-terminal domain and the activation domain of synthetic TALEs, as well as the best 'hot-spots' on the 35S promoter on targeted transgene activation. Furthermore, TALE activation of the Arabidopsis MYB transcription factor AtPAP1 (PRODUCTION OF ANTHOCYANIN PIGMENT 1) in stable transgenic tobacco gave rise to a dark purple colour on infiltrated leaves when driven by four copies of cis-regulatory elements of pathogenesis-related gene (PR1) with enhancer motifs B and A1 from the 35S promoter. These results provide novel insights into the potential applications of synthetic TALEs for targeted gene activation of transgenes in plants.

Two-year field analysis of reduced recalcitrance transgenic switchgrass.

Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) is a leading candidate for a dedicated lignocellulosic biofuel feedstock owing to its high biomass production, wide adaptation and low agronomic input requirements. Lignin in cell walls of switchgrass, and other lignocellulosic feedstocks, severely limits the accessibility of cell wall carbohydrates to enzymatic breakdown into fermentable sugars and subsequently biofuels. Low-lignin transgenic switchgrass plants produced by the down-regulation of caffeic acid O-methyltransferase (COMT), a lignin biosynthetic enzyme, were analysed in the field for two growing seasons. COMT transcript abundance, lignin content and the syringyl/guaiacyl lignin monomer ratio were consistently lower in the COMT-down-regulated plants throughout the duration of the field trial. In general, analyses with fully established plants harvested during the second growing season produced results that were similar to those observed in previous greenhouse studies with these plants. Sugar release was improved by up to 34% and ethanol yield by up to 28% in the transgenic lines relative to controls. Additionally, these results were obtained using senesced plant material harvested at the end of the growing season, compared with the young, green tissue that was used in the greenhouse experiments. Another important finding was that transgenic plants were not more susceptible to rust (Puccinia emaculata). The results of this study suggest that lignin down-regulation in switchgrass can confer real-world improvements in biofuel yield without negative consequences to biomass yield or disease susceptibility.

Economic and Sustainability Impacts of Yield and Composition Variation in Bioenergy Crops: Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.).

Economically viable production of biobased products and fuels requires high-yielding, high-quality, sustainable process-advantaged crops, developed using bioengineering or advanced breeding approaches. Understanding which crop phenotypic traits have the largest impact on biofuel economics and sustainability outcomes is important for the targeted feedstock crop development. Here, we evaluated biomass yield and cell-wall composition traits across a large natural variant population of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) grown across three common garden sites. Samples from 331 switchgrass genotypes were collected and analyzed for carbohydrate and lignin components. Considering plant survival and biomass after multiple years of growth, we found that 84 of the genotypes analyzed may be suited for commercial production in the southeastern U.S. These genotypes show a range of growth and compositional traits across the population that are apparently independent of each other. We used these data to conduct techno-economic analyses and life cycle assessments evaluating the performance of each switchgrass genotype under a standard cellulosic ethanol process model with pretreatment, added enzymes, and fermentation. We find that switchgrass yield per area is the largest economic driver of the minimum fuel selling price (MSFP), ethanol yield per hectare, global warming potential (GWP), and cumulative energy demand (CED). At any yield, the carbohydrate content is significant but of secondary importance. Water use follows similar trends but has more variability due to an increased dependence on the biorefinery model. Analyses presented here highlight the primary importance of plant yield and the secondary importance of carbohydrate content when selecting a feedstock that is both economical and sustainable.

Bacterial pathogen phytosensing in transgenic tobacco and Arabidopsis plants.

Plants are subject to attack by a wide range of phytopathogens. Current pathogen detection methods and technologies are largely constrained to those occurring post-symptomatically. Recent efforts were made to generate plant sentinels (phytosensors) that can be used for sensing and reporting pathogen contamination in crops. Engineered phytosensors indicating the presence of plant pathogens as early-warning sentinels potentially have tremendous utility as wide-area detectors. We previously showed that synthetic promoters containing pathogen and/or defence signalling inducible cis-acting regulatory elements (RE) fused to a fluorescent protein (FP) reporter could detect phytopathogenic bacteria in a transient phytosensing system. Here, we further advanced this phytosensing system by developing stable transgenic tobacco and Arabidopsis plants containing candidate constructs. The inducibility of each synthetic promoter was examined in response to biotic (bacterial pathogens) or chemical (plant signal molecules salicylic acid, ethylene and methyl jasmonate) treatments using stably transgenic plants. The treated plants were visualized using epifluorescence microscopy and quantified using spectrofluorometry for FP synthesis upon induction. Time-course analyses of FP synthesis showed that both transgenic tobacco and Arabidopsis plants were capable to respond in predictable ways to pathogen and chemical treatments. These results provide insights into the potential applications of transgenic plants as phytosensors and the implementation of emerging technologies for monitoring plant disease outbreaks in agricultural fields.

Overexpression of a soybean salicylic acid methyltransferase gene confers resistance to soybean cyst nematode.

Salicylic acid plays a critical role in activating plant defence responses after pathogen attack. Salicylic acid methyltransferase (SAMT) modulates the level of salicylic acid by converting salicylic acid to methyl salicylate. Here, we report that a SAMT gene from soybean (GmSAMT1) plays a role in soybean defence against soybean cyst nematode (Heterodera glycines Ichinohe, SCN). GmSAMT1 was identified as a candidate SCN defence-related gene in our previous analysis of soybean defence against SCN using GeneChip microarray experiments. The current study started with the isolation of the full-length cDNAs of GmSAMT1 from a SCN-resistant soybean line and from a SCN-susceptible soybean line. The two cDNAs encode proteins of identical sequences. The GmSAMT1 cDNA was expressed in Escherichia coli. Using in vitro enzyme assays, E. coli-expressed GmSAMT1 was confirmed to function as salicylic acid methyltransferase. The apparent Km value of GmSAMT1 for salicylic acid was approximately 46 µM. To determine the role of GmSAMT1 in soybean defence against SCN, transgenic hairy roots overexpressing GmSAMT1 were produced and tested for SCN resistance. Overexpression of GmSAMT1 in SCN-susceptible backgrounds significantly reduced the development of SCN, indicating that overexpression of GmSAMT1 in the transgenic hairy root system could confer resistance to SCN. Overexpression of GmSAMT1 in transgenic hairy roots was also found to affect the expression of selected genes involved in salicylic acid biosynthesis and salicylic acid signal transduction.