Lipoprotein(a) in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and aortic stenosis: a European Atherosclerosis Society consensus statement.

This 2022 European Atherosclerosis Society lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] consensus statement updates evidence for the role of Lp(a) in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) and aortic valve stenosis, provides clinical guidance for testing and treating elevated Lp(a) levels, and considers its inclusion in global risk estimation. Epidemiologic and genetic studies involving hundreds of thousands of individuals strongly support a causal and continuous association between Lp(a) concentration and cardiovascular outcomes in different ethnicities; elevated Lp(a) is a risk factor even at very low levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. High Lp(a) is associated with both microcalcification and macrocalcification of the aortic valve. Current findings do not support Lp(a) as a risk factor for venous thrombotic events and impaired fibrinolysis. Very low Lp(a) levels may associate with increased risk of diabetes mellitus meriting further study. Lp(a) has pro-inflammatory and pro-atherosclerotic properties, which may partly relate to the oxidized phospholipids carried by Lp(a). This panel recommends testing Lp(a) concentration at least once in adults; cascade testing has potential value in familial hypercholesterolaemia, or with family or personal history of (very) high Lp(a) or premature ASCVD. Without specific Lp(a)-lowering therapies, early intensive risk factor management is recommended, targeted according to global cardiovascular risk and Lp(a) level. Lipoprotein apheresis is an option for very high Lp(a) with progressive cardiovascular disease despite optimal management of risk factors. In conclusion, this statement reinforces evidence for Lp(a) as a causal risk factor for cardiovascular outcomes. Trials of specific Lp(a)-lowering treatments are critical to confirm clinical benefit for cardiovascular disease and aortic valve stenosis.

How to Mitigate Risk of Premature Cardiovascular Disease Among Children and Adolescents with Mental Health Conditions.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The goal of this article is to characterize the myriad of ways that children with mental health conditions can be at risk for premature cardiovascular disease (CVD) and various modalities to ameliorate this risk in childhood in order to improve the life course of these children. REVIEW FINDINGS: Child and adolescent mental health conditions are a common yet underrecognized risk factor for premature CVD. The American Heart Association has recently included psychiatric conditions as a CVD risk factor (CVDRF) and the evidence linking childhood adversity to cardiometabolic disease. There are bidirectional and additive effects from the intrinsic emotional dysregulation and inflammatory changes from the mental health condition, the associations with risky health behaviors, and in some cases, metabolic side effects from pharmacotherapy. These pathways can be potentiated by toxic stress, a physiologic response to stressors from childhood adversity. Toxic stress is also associated with development of mental health conditions with epigenetic effects that can result in transgenerational inheritance of cardiometabolic risk. Exposure to toxic stress and mental health conditions in isolation sometimes compounded by pharmacotherapies used in treatment increase the risk of cardiometabolic diseases in childhood. The multiple pathways, which adversely influence cardiometabolic outcomes, encourage clinicians to consider strategies to mitigate these factors and justify the importance of early screening and treatment for CVDRFs. Mental health, health behaviors, and environmental factors co-occur and intersect in complex pathways that can increase CVD risk over the lifespan. Early detection and response can mitigate the risks associated with premature development of CVD.

Prevention of Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease in Children with Familial Hypercholesterolemia.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Familial hypercholesterolemia (FH), a common inherited disorder of LDL-C metabolism that predisposes to premature cardiovascular disease, is underdiagnosed. Despite recommendations for screening all children and initiation of lipid-lowering medication beginning at 8-10 years of age, adherence to guidelines is low. Most individuals with FH are inadequately treated, especially women and children. The purpose of this review is to discuss current literature and recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of heterozygous FH (HeFH) in the pediatric population. RECENT FINDINGS: Twenty-year outcome data demonstrate lower rates of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) related events and death in individuals with FH who were treated with statins from childhood, compared to those who initiated statins in adulthood. While diagnosis rates of FH are slowly improving, most clinicians do not adhere to recommendations for cholesterol screening in youth. Identifying youth with FH offers the opportunity for early intervention to prevent ASCVD and identify affected relatives through reverse cascade screening.

Role of L-Arginine in Nitric Oxide Synthesis and Health in Humans.

As a functional amino acid (AA), L-arginine (Arg) serves not only as a building block of protein but also as an essential substrate for the synthesis of nitric oxide (NO), creatine, polyamines, homoarginine, and agmatine in mammals (including humans). NO (a major vasodilator) increases blood flow to tissues. Arg and its metabolites play important roles in metabolism and physiology. Arg is required to maintain the urea cycle in the active state to detoxify ammonia. This AA also activates cellular mechanistic target of rapamycin (MTOR) and focal adhesion kinase cell signaling pathways in mammals, thereby stimulating protein synthesis, inhibiting autophagy and proteolysis, enhancing cell migration and wound healing, promoting spermatogenesis and sperm quality, improving conceptus survival and growth, and augmenting the production of milk proteins. Although Arg is formed de novo from glutamine/glutamate and proline in humans, these synthetic pathways do not provide sufficient Arg in infants or adults. Thus, humans and other animals do have dietary needs of Arg for optimal growth, development, lactation, and fertility. Much evidence shows that oral administration of Arg within the physiological range can confer health benefits to both men and women by increasing NO synthesis and thus blood flow in tissues (e.g., skeletal muscle and the corpora cavernosa of the penis). NO is a vasodilator, a neurotransmitter, a regulator of nutrient metabolism, and a killer of bacteria, fungi, parasites, and viruses [including coronaviruses, such as SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 (the virus causing COVID-19). Thus, Arg supplementation can enhance immunity, anti-infectious, and anti-oxidative responses, fertility, wound healing, ammonia detoxification, nutrient digestion and absorption, lean tissue mass, and brown adipose tissue development; ameliorate metabolic syndromes (including dyslipidemia, obesity, diabetes, and hypertension); and treat individuals with erectile dysfunction, sickle cell disease, muscular dystrophy, and pre-eclampsia.

Dietary Intakes of Amino Acids and Other Nutrients by Adult Humans.

Measuring usual dietary intake in freely living humans is difficult to accomplish. As a part of our recent study, a food frequency questionnaire was completed by healthy adult men and women at days 0 and 90 of the study. Data from the food questionnaire were analyzed with a nutrient analysis program ( www.Harvardsffq.date ). Healthy men and women consumed protein as 19-20% and 17-19% of their total energy intakes, respectively, with animal protein representing about 75 and 70% of their total protein intakes, respectively. The intake of each nutritionally essential amino acid (EAA) by the persons exceeded that recommended for healthy adults with a minimal physical activity. In all individuals, the dietary intake of leucine was the highest, followed by lysine, valine, and isoleucine in descending order, and the ingestion of amino acids that are synthesizable de novo in animal cells (AASAs) was about 20% greater than that of total EAAs. The intake of each AASA met those recommended for healthy adults with a minimal physical activity. Intakes of some AASAs (alanine, arginine, aspartate, glutamate, and glycine) from a typical diet providing 90-110 g food protein/day does not meet the requirements of adults with an intensive physical activity. Within the male or female group, there were not significant differences in the dietary intakes of all amino acids between days 0 and 90 of the study, and this was also true for nearly all other essential nutrients. Our findings will help to improve amino acid nutrition and health in both the general population and exercising individuals.

Safety of dietary supplementation with arginine in adult humans.

Previous studies with animals and humans have shown beneficial effects of dietary supplementation with L-arginine (Arg) on reducing white fat and improving health. At present, a long-term safe level of Arg administration to adult humans is unknown. The objective of this study was to conduct a randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial to evaluate the safety and tolerability of oral Arg in overweight or obese but otherwise healthy adults with a body mass index of ≥ 25 kg/m2. A total of 142 subjects completed a 7-day wash-in period using a 12 g Arg/day dose. All the remaining eligible 101 subjects who tolerated the wash-in dose (45 men and 56 women) were assigned randomly to ingest 0, 15 or 30 g Arg (as pharmaceutical-grade Arg-HCl) per day for 90 days. Arg was taken daily in at least two divided doses by mixing with a flavored beverage. At Days 0 and 90, blood pressures of study subjects were recorded, their physical examinations were performed, and their blood and 24-h urine samples were obtained to measure: (1) serum concentrations of amino acids, glucose, fatty acids, and related metabolites; and (2) renal, hepatic, endocrine and metabolic parameters. Our results indicate that the serum concentration of Arg in men or women increased (P < 0.05) progressively with increasing oral Arg doses from 0 to 30 g/day. Dietary supplementation with 30 g Arg/day reduced (P < 0.05) systolic blood pressure and serum glucose concentration in females, as well as serum concentrations of free fatty acids in both males and females. Based on physiological and biochemical variables, study subjects tolerated oral administration of 15 and 30 g Arg/day without adverse events. We conclude that a long-term safe level of dietary Arg supplementation is at least 30 g/day in adult humans.

Psychotropic Pharmacotherapy Associated With QT Prolongation Among Veterans With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.

BACKGROUND: In 2012, the Food and Drug Administration issued Drug Safety Communications on several drugs associated with QT prolongation and fatal ventricular arrhythmias. Among these was citalopram, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) approved for depression and commonly used for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Evaluation of the risk for QT prolongation among other psychotropic drugs for individuals with PTSD remains limited. OBJECTIVE: Explore psychotropic drugs associated with QT prolongation among veterans with PTSD. METHODS: Patients in the Veterans Health Administration in 2006-2009 with PTSD and QT prolongation (176 cases) were matched 1:4 on age, gender, visit date and setting, and physical comorbidity. Classification trees assessed QT prolongation risk among prescribed medications (n=880). RESULTS: Receipt of any drug with known risk of QT prolongation varied by group (23% QT cases vs 15% control, p<0.01). Psychotropic medications conferring significant risks included ziprasidone (3% vs 1%, p=0.02) and buspirone (6% vs 2%, p=0.01). Increased risk was not observed for the SSRIs, citalopram and fluoxetine. Classification trees found that sotalol and amitriptyline carried greater risk among cardiac patients and methadone, especially if prescribed with quetiapine, among noncardiac patients. Per adjusted survival model, patients with QT prolongation were at increased risk for death (hazard ratio=1.60; 95% CI=1.04-2.44). CONCLUSIONS: Decision models are particularly advantageous when exploring nonlinear relationships or nonadditive interactions. These findings may potentially affect clinical decision-making concerning treatment for PTSD. For patients at higher risk of QT prolongation, antidepressants other than amitriptyline should be considered. Medications for comorbid conditions should also be closely monitored for heightened QT prolongation risk.

Safety and Effectiveness of Arginine in Adults.

l-Arginine (Arg) appears to have a beneficial effect on the regulation of nutrient metabolism to enhance lean tissue deposition and on insulin resistance in humans. The observed safe level for oral administration of Arg is ∼20 g/d, but higher levels have been tested in short-term studies without serious adverse effects; however, more data are needed in both animal models and humans to fully evaluate safety as well as efficacy. The primary objective of this review is to summarize the current knowledge of the safety, pharmacokinetics, and effectiveness of oral Arg in adults. Arg supplementation has been used safely in vulnerable populations, such as pregnant women, preterm infants, and individuals with cystic fibrosis. Several recent studies have shown beneficial effects of Arg in individuals with obesity, insulin resistance, and diabetes. Collectively, the data suggest that Arg supplementation is a safe and generally well-tolerated nutriceutical that may improve metabolic profiles in humans.

Catabolism and safety of supplemental L-arginine in animals.

L-arginine (Arg) is utilized via multiple pathways to synthesize protein and low-molecular-weight bioactive substances (e.g., nitric oxide, creatine, and polyamines) with enormous physiological importance. Furthermore, Arg regulates cell signaling pathways and gene expression to improve cardiovascular function, augment insulin sensitivity, enhance lean tissue mass, and reduce obesity in humans. Despite its versatile roles, the use of Arg as a dietary supplement is limited due to the lack of data to address concerns over its safety in humans. Data from animal studies are reviewed to assess arginine catabolism and the safety of long-term Arg supplementation. The arginase pathway was responsible for catabolism of 76-85 and 81-96 % Arg in extraintestinal tissues of pigs and rats, respectively. Dietary supplementation with Arg-HCl or the Arg base [315- and 630-mg Arg/(kg BW d) for 91 d] had no adverse effects on male or female pigs. Similarly, no safety issues were observed for male or female rats receiving supplementation with 1.8- and 3.6-g Arg/(kg BW d) for at least 91 d. Intravenous administration of Arg-HCl to gestating sheep at 81 and 180 mg Arg/(kg BW d) is safe for at least 82 and 40 d, respectively. Animals fed conventional diets can well tolerate large amounts of supplemental Arg [up to 630-mg Arg/(kg BW d) in pigs or 3.6-g Arg/(kg BW d) in rats] for 91 d, which are equivalent to 573-mg Arg/(kg BW d) for humans. Collectively, these results can help guide studies to determine the safety of long-term oral administration of Arg in humans.

Safety of long-term dietary supplementation with L-arginine in rats.

This study was conducted with rats to determine the safety of long-term dietary supplementation with L-arginine. Beginning at 6 weeks of age, male and female rats were fed a casein-based semi-purified diet containing 0.61 % L-arginine and received drinking water containing L-arginine-HCl (0, 1.8, or 3.6 g L-arginine/kg body-weight/day; n = 10/group). These supplemental doses of L-arginine were equivalent to 0, 286, and 573 mg L-arginine/kg body-weight/day, respectively, in humans. After a 13-week supplementation period, blood samples were obtained from rats for biochemical analyses. Supplementation with L-arginine increased plasma concentrations of arginine, ornithine, proline, homoarginine, urea, and nitric oxide metabolites without affecting those for lysine, histidine, or methylarginines, while reducing plasma concentrations of ammonia, glutamine, free fatty acids, and triglycerides. L-Arginine supplementation enhanced protein gain and reduced white-fat deposition in the body. Based on general appearance, feeding behavior, and physiological parameters, all animals showed good health during the entire experimental period; Plasma concentrations of all measured hormones (except leptin) did not differ between control and arginine-supplemented rats. L-Arginine supplementation reduced plasma levels of leptin. Additionally, L-arginine supplementation increased L-arginine:glycine amidinotransferase activity in kidneys but not in the liver or small intestine, suggesting tissue-specific regulation of enzyme expression by L-arginine. Collectively, these results indicate that dietary supplementation with L-arginine (e.g., 3.6 g/kg body-weight/day) is safe in rats for at least 91 days. This dose is equivalent to 40 g L-arginine/kg body-weight/day for a 70-kg person. Our findings help guide clinical studies to determine the safety of long-term oral administration of L-arginine to humans.

Safety of long-term dietary supplementation with L-arginine in pigs.

This study was conducted with a swine model to determine the safety of long-term dietary supplementation with L-arginine-HCl or L-arginine free base. Beginning at 30 days of age, pigs were fed a corn- and soybean meal-based diet (31.5 g/kg body weight/day) supplemented with 0, 1.21, 1.81 or 2.42 % L-arginine-HCl (Experiment 1) or with 0, 1, 1.5 or 2 % L-arginine (Experiment 2). The supplemental doses of 0, 1, 1.5, and 2 % L-arginine provided pigs with 0, 315, 473, and 630 mg L-arginine/kg body weight/day, respectively, which were equivalent to 0, 286, 430, and 573 mg L-arginine/kg body weight/day, respectively, in humans. At 121 days of age (91 days after initiation of supplementation), blood samples were obtained from the jugular vein of pigs at 1 and 4 h after feeding for hematological and clinical chemistry tests. Dietary supplementation with L-arginine increased plasma concentrations of arginine, ornithine, proline, albumin and reticulocytes, while reducing plasma concentrations of ammonia, free fatty acids, triglyceride, cholesterol, and neutrophils. L-Arginine supplementation enhanced protein gain and reduced white-fat deposition in the body. Other variables in standard hematology and clinical chemistry tests, serum concentrations of insulin, growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor-I did not differ among all the groups of pigs. These results indicate that dietary supplementation with L-arginine (up to 630 mg/kg body weight/day) is safe in pigs for at least 91 days. Our findings help guide clinical studies to determine the safety of long-term oral administration of L-arginine to humans.

Can an Internet-based health risk assessment highlight problems of heart disease risk factor awareness? A cross-sectional analysis.

BACKGROUND: Health risk assessments are becoming more popular as a tool to conveniently and effectively reach community-dwelling adults who may be at risk for serious chronic conditions such as coronary heart disease (CHD). The use of such instruments to improve adults' risk factor awareness and concordance with clinically measured risk factor values could be an opportunity to advance public health knowledge and build effective interventions. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to determine if an Internet-based health risk assessment can highlight important aspects of agreement between respondents' self-reported and clinically measured CHD risk factors for community-dwelling adults who may be at risk for CHD. METHODS: Data from an Internet-based cardiovascular health risk assessment (Heart Aware) administered to community-dwelling adults at 127 clinical sites were analyzed. Respondents were recruited through individual hospital marketing campaigns, such as media advertising and print media, found throughout inpatient and outpatient facilities. CHD risk factors from the Framingham Heart Study were examined. Weighted kappa statistics were calculated to measure interrater agreement between respondents' self-reported and clinically measured CHD risk factors. Weighted kappa statistics were then calculated for each sample by strata of overall 10-year CHD risk. Three samples were drawn based on strategies for treating missing data: a listwise deleted sample, a pairwise deleted sample, and a multiple imputation (MI) sample. RESULTS: The MI sample (n=16,879) was most appropriate for addressing missing data. No CHD risk factor had better than marginal interrater agreement (κ>.60). High-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) exhibited suboptimal interrater agreement that deteriorated (eg, κ<.30) as overall CHD risk increased. Conversely, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) interrater agreement improved (eg, up to κ=.25) as overall CHD risk increased. Overall CHD risk of the sample was lower than comparative population-based CHD risk (ie, no more than 15% risk of CHD for the sample vs up to a 30% chance of CHD for the population). CONCLUSIONS: Interventions are needed to improve knowledge of CHD risk factors. Specific interventions should address perceptions of HDL-C and LCL-C. Internet-based health risk assessments such as Heart Aware may contribute to public health surveillance, but they must address selection bias of Internet-based recruitment methods.

Lipoprotein(a): An important piece of the ASCVD risk factor puzzle across diverse populations.

Elevated lipoprotein(a) (Lp[a]) is an independent, genetic risk factor for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) that impacts ~1.4 billion people globally. Generally, Lp(a) levels remain stable over time; thus, most individuals need only undergo Lp(a) testing through a non-fasting blood draw once in their lifetime, unless elevated Lp(a) is identified. Despite the convenience of the test for clinicians and patients, routine Lp(a) testing has not been widely adopted. This review provides a guide to the benefits of Lp(a) testing and solutions for overcoming common barriers in practice, including access to testing and lack of awareness. Lp(a) testing provides the opportunity to reclassify ASCVD risk and drive intensive cardiovascular risk factor management in individuals with elevated Lp(a), and to identify patients potentially less likely to respond to statins. Moreover, cascade screening can help to identify elevated Lp(a) in relatives of individuals with a personal or family history of premature ASCVD. Overall, given the profound impact of elevated Lp(a) on cardiovascular risk, Lp(a) testing should be an essential component of risk assessment by primary and specialty care providers.

Translating Evidence-based Approaches into optimal Care for individuals at High-risk of ASCVD: Pilot testing of case-based e-learning modules and design of the TEACH-ASCVD study.

BACKGROUND: Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) remains the leading cause of death in the United States. Case-based learning using electronic delivery of the modules can educate clinicians and improve translation of evidence-based guidelines into practice for high-risk ASCVD patients. OBJECTIVE: To develop and optimize module design, content, and usability of e-learning modules to teach clinicians evidence-based management in accordance with multi-society guidelines for high-risk ASCVD patients that will be implemented and evaluated in U.S. health systems in the TEACH-ASCVD study. METHODS: Seven e-learning modules were created by a committee of lipid experts. Focus groups were conducted with lipid experts to elicit feedback on case content followed by interviews with a target audience of clinicians to assess usability of the online module platform. Responses from both groups were evaluated, and appropriate changes were made to improve the e-learning modules. Design of the TEACH-ASCVD study is presented. RESULTS: Feedback regarding case content by lipid experts included providing more detailed patient histories, clarifying various diagnostic criteria, and emphasizing clinical best practices based on evidence-based guidelines. The target audience clinician group reported an agreeable experience with the e-learning modules but noted a discordance between the evidence-based guidelines and clinical decision-making in their own practices. Participants felt the modules would help educate clinicians in managing high-risk ASCVD patients. CONCLUSION: Clinicians must be informed of best practices as the field of lipidology continues to evolve. E-learning modules provide a concise, valuable, and accessible mechanism for educating clinicians regarding changes in the field to deliver the best patient care.

Frequent questions and responses on the 2022 lipoprotein(a) consensus statement of the European Atherosclerosis Society.

In 2022, the European Atherosclerosis Society (EAS) published a new consensus statement on lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)], summarizing current knowledge about its causal association with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) and aortic stenosis. One of the novelties of this statement is a new risk calculator showing how Lp(a) influences lifetime risk for ASCVD and that global risk may be underestimated substantially in individuals with high or very high Lp(a) concentration. The statement also provides practical advice on how knowledge about Lp(a) concentration can be used to modulate risk factor management, given that specific and highly effective mRNA-targeted Lp(a)-lowering therapies are still in clinical development. This advice counters the attitude: "Why should I measure Lp(a) if I can't lower it?". Subsequent to publication, questions have arisen relating to how the recommendations of this statement impact everyday clinical practice and ASCVD management. This review addresses 30 of the most frequently asked questions about Lp(a) epidemiology, its contribution to cardiovascular risk, Lp(a) measurement, risk factor management and existing therapeutic options.

Use of Lipoprotein(a) in clinical practice: A biomarker whose time has come. A scientific statement from the National Lipid Association.

Lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] is a well-recognized, independent risk factor for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, with elevated levels estimated to be prevalent in 20% of the population. Observational and genetic evidence strongly support a causal relationship between high plasma concentrations of Lp(a) and increased risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease-related events, such as myocardial infarction and stroke, and valvular aortic stenosis. In this scientific statement, we review an array of evidence-based considerations for testing of Lp(a) in clinical practice and the utilization of Lp(a) levels to inform treatment strategies in primary and secondary prevention.

Hypercholesterolemia in youth: opportunities and obstacles to prevent premature atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease.

Treatment of hypercholesterolemia in youth is predicated on the knowledge that we can identify those youth with this atherosclerotic risk factor most likely to develop premature cardiovascular disease. Unfortunately, this is not the case. Before we can adequately address appropriate lipid-lowering therapies in this special population, we must address and resolve current barriers related to screening and diagnosis. In this article, we describe some of the opportunities and obstacles that clinicians and policy makers confront when applying the current pediatric guidelines focused on screening and treating hypercholesterolemia in the pediatric population.

Beneficial effects of L-arginine on reducing obesity: potential mechanisms and important implications for human health.

Over the past 20 years, growing interest in the biochemistry, nutrition, and pharmacology of L-arginine has led to extensive studies to explore its nutritional and therapeutic roles in treating and preventing human metabolic disorders. Emerging evidence shows that dietary L-arginine supplementation reduces adiposity in genetically obese rats, diet-induced obese rats, finishing pigs, and obese human subjects with Type-2 diabetes mellitus. The mechanisms responsible for the beneficial effects of L-arginine are likely complex, but ultimately involve altering the balance of energy intake and expenditure in favor of fat loss or reduced growth of white adipose tissue. Recent studies indicate that L-arginine supplementation stimulates mitochondrial biogenesis and brown adipose tissue development possibly through the enhanced synthesis of cell-signaling molecules (e.g., nitric oxide, carbon monoxide, polyamines, cGMP, and cAMP) as well as the increased expression of genes that promote whole-body oxidation of energy substrates (e.g., glucose and fatty acids) Thus, L-arginine holds great promise as a safe and cost-effective nutrient to reduce adiposity, increase muscle mass, and improve the metabolic profile in animals and humans.

Risk factor treatment in veteran women at risk for cardiovascular disease.

OBJECTIVES: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death in women. Aggressive management of atherosclerotic risk factors can prevent or delay the onset of CVD. Treatment of modifiable risk factors provides an important opportunity to reduce the burden of CVD in women and decrease future adverse event rates. The aims of this study were to assess current treatment of atherosclerotic risk factors in women found to be at moderate or high-risk for CVD and to examine levels of CVD knowledge and awareness among women found to be at moderate or high-risk for CVD METHODS: In a cross-sectional study, we screened ambulatory female veterans aged 40 to 85 y for the prevalence of peripheral vascular disease (PVD) and associated atherosclerotic risk factors, and administered a survey to assess the participants' knowledge and awareness of CVD, risk factors, and consequences. Medical records, pharmacy data, and clinician encounter notes were reviewed for documented evidence of CVD risk factors, comorbidities, and corresponding treatment. From a total cohort of 162 women, 108 (66.7%) were categorized as having an increased risk of cardiovascular disease based on a modification of the Framingham cardiovascular risk score, which took into account the presence of carotid intimal-medial thickness (cIMT) > 1.0 mm or ankle-brachial index