The association between physical activity and cognition in men with and without HIV infection.

OBJECTIVES: HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders are highly prevalent, and physical activity (PA) is a modifiable behaviour that may affect neurocognitive function. Our objective was to determine the association between PA and neurocognitive function and the effect of HIV on this association. METHODS: PA was assessed in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study with the International Physical Activity Questionnaire. A neuropsychological test battery assessed global impairment and domain-specific impairment (executive function, speed of processing, working memory, learning, memory, and motor function) every 2 years. Semiannually, the Symbol Digit Modalities Test and Trail Making Test Parts A and B were performed. Adjusted logistic regression models were used to assess the PA-neurocognitive function association. Using longitudinal data, we also assessed the PA category-decline of neurocognitive function association with multivariate simple regression. RESULTS: Of 601 men, 44% were HIV-infected. Low, moderate, and high PA was reported in 27%, 25%, and 48% of the HIV-infected men vs. 19%, 32% and 49% of the HIV-uninfected men, respectively. High PA was associated with lower odds of impairment of learning, memory, and motor function [odds ratio (OR) ranging from 0.52 to 0.57; P < 0.05 for all]. The high PA-global impairment association OR was 0.63 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.39, 1.02]. Among HIV-infected men only, across multiple domains, the high PA-impairment association was even more pronounced (OR from 0.27 to 0.49). Baseline high/moderate PA was not associated with decline of any domain score over time. HIV infection was marginally associated with a higher speed of decline in motor function. CONCLUSIONS: A protective effect of high PA on impairment in neurocognitive domains was observed cross-sectionally. Longitudinal PA measurements are needed to elucidate the PA-neurocognitive function relationship over time.

FLI1 polymorphism affects susceptibility to cutaneous leishmaniasis in Brazil.

Mapping murine genes controlling cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) identified Fli1 as a candidate influencing resistance to L. major and enhanced wound healing. We examine FLI1 as a gene controlling CL and mucosal leishmaniasis (ML) caused by L. braziliensis in humans. Intron 1 single nucleotide polymorphisms tagging promoter and enhancer elements were analysed in 168 nuclear families (250 CL; 87 ML cases) and replicated in 157 families (402 CL; 39 ML cases). Robust case-pseudocontrol logistic regression analysis showed association between allele C (odds ratio (OR) 1.65; 95% confidence interval 1.18-2.29; P=0.003) of FLI1_rs7930515 and CL in the primary sample that was confirmed (OR 1.60; 95% confidence interval 1.10-2.33; P=0.014) in the replication set (combined P=1.8 × 10(-4)). FLI1_rs7930515 is in linkage disequilibrium with the functional GAn microsatellite in the proximal promoter. Haplotype associations extended across the enhancer, which was not polymorphic. ML associated with inverse haplotypes compared with CL. Wound healing is therefore important in CL, providing potential for therapies modulating FLI1.

Increased furfural tolerance due to overexpression of NADH-dependent oxidoreductase FucO in Escherichia coli strains engineered for the production of ethanol and lactate.

Furfural is an important fermentation inhibitor in hemicellulose sugar syrups derived from woody biomass. The metabolism of furfural by NADPH-dependent oxidoreductases, such as YqhD (low K(m) for NADPH), is proposed to inhibit the growth and fermentation of xylose in Escherichia coli by competing with biosynthesis for NADPH. The discovery that the NADH-dependent propanediol oxidoreductase (FucO) can reduce furfural provided a new approach to improve furfural tolerance. Strains that produced ethanol or lactate efficiently as primary products from xylose were developed. These strains included chromosomal mutations in yqhD expression that permitted the fermentation of xylose broths containing up to 10 mM furfural. Expression of fucO from plasmids was shown to increase furfural tolerance by 50% and to permit the fermentation of 15 mM furfural. Product yields with 15 mM furfural were equivalent to those of control strains without added furfural (85% to 90% of the theoretical maximum). These two defined genetic traits can be readily transferred to enteric biocatalysts designed to produce other products. A similar strategy that minimizes the depletion of NADPH pools by native detoxification enzymes may be generally useful for other inhibitory compounds in lignocellulosic sugar streams and with other organisms.

Evidence for associations between the purinergic receptor P2X(7) (P2RX7) and toxoplasmosis.

Congenital Toxoplasma gondii infection can result in intracranial calcification, hydrocephalus and retinochoroiditis. Acquired infection is commonly associated with ocular disease. Pathology is characterized by strong proinflammatory responses. Ligation of ATP by purinergic receptor P2X(7), encoded by P2RX7, stimulates proinflammatory cytokines and can lead directly to killing of intracellular pathogens. To determine whether P2X(7) has a role in susceptibility to congenital toxoplasmosis, we examined polymorphisms at P2RX7 in 149 child/parent trios from North America. We found association (FBAT Z-scores +/-2.429; P=0.015) between the derived C(+)G(-) allele (f=0.68; OR=2.06; 95% CI: 1.14-3.75) at single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs1718119 (1068T>C; Thr-348-Ala), and a second synonymous variant rs1621388 in linkage disequilibrium with it, and clinical signs of disease per se. Analysis of clinical subgroups showed no association with hydrocephalus, with effect sizes for associations with retinal disease and brain calcifications enhanced (OR=3.0-4.25; 0.004

Genetic changes that increase 5-hydroxymethyl furfural resistance in ethanol-producing Escherichia coli LY180.

The ability of a biocatalyst to tolerate furan inhibitors present in hemicellulose hydrolysates is important for the production of renewable chemicals. This study shows EMFR9, a furfural-tolerant mutant of ethanologenic E. coli LY180, has also acquired tolerance to 5-hydroxymethyl furfural (5-HMF). The mechanism of action of 5-HMF and furfural appear similar. Furan tolerance results primarily from lower expression of yqhD and dkgA, two furan reductases with a low K(m) for NADPH. Furan tolerance was also increased by adding plasmids encoding a NADPH/NADH transhydrogenase (pntAB). Together, these results support the hypothesis that the NADPH-dependent reduction of furans by YqhD and DkgA inhibits growth by competing with biosynthesis for this limiting cofactor.

Silencing of NADPH-dependent oxidoreductase genes (yqhD and dkgA) in furfural-resistant ethanologenic Escherichia coli.

Low concentrations of furfural are formed as a side product during the dilute acid hydrolysis of hemicellulose. Growth is inhibited by exposure to furfural but resumes after the complete reduction of furfural to the less toxic furfuryl alcohol. Growth-based selection was used to isolate a furfural-resistant mutant of ethanologenic Escherichia coli LY180, designated strain EMFR9. Based on mRNA expression levels in the parent and mutant in response to furfural challenge, genes encoding 12 oxidoreductases were found to vary by more than twofold (eight were higher in EMFR9; four were higher in the parent). All 12 genes were cloned. When expressed from plasmids, none of the eight genes in the first group increased furfural tolerance in the parent (LY180). Expression of three of the silenced genes (yqhD, dkgA, and yqfA) in EMFR9 was found to decrease furfural tolerance compared to that in the parent. Purified enzymes encoded by yqhD and dkgA were shown to have NADPH-dependent furfural reductase activity. Both exhibited low K(m) values for NADPH (8 microM and 23 microM, respectively), similar to those of biosynthetic reactions. Furfural reductase activity was not associated with yqfA. Deleting yqhD and dkgA in the parent (LY180) increased furfural tolerance, but not to the same extent observed in the mutant EMFR9. Together, these results suggest that the process of reducing furfural by using an enzyme with a low K(m) for NADPH rather than a direct inhibitory action is the primary cause for growth inhibition by low concentrations of furfural.

Genetics and visceral leishmaniasis: of mice and man.

Ninety per cent of the 500,000 annual new cases of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) occur in India/Bangladesh/Nepal, Sudan and Brazil. Importantly, 80-90% of human infections are sub-clinical or asymptomatic, usually associated with strong cell-mediated immunity. Understanding the environmental and genetic risk factors that determine why two people with the same exposure to infection differ in susceptibility could provide important leads for improved therapies. Recent research using candidate gene association analysis and genome-wide linkage studies (GWLS) in collections of families from Sudan, Brazil and India have identified a number of genes/regions related both to environmental risk factors (e.g. iron), as well as genes that determine type 1 vs. type 2 cellular immune responses. However, until now all of the allelic association studies carried out have been underpowered to find genes of small effect sizes (odds ratios or OR < 2), and GWLS using multicase pedigrees have only been powered to find single major genes, or at best oligogenic control. The accumulation of large DNA banks from India and Brazil now makes it possible to undertake genome-wide association studies (GWAS), which are ongoing as part of phase 2 of the Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium. Data from this analysis should seed research into novel genes and mechanisms that influence susceptibility to VL.

Neural correlates of working memory training in HIV patients: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Potent combined antiretroviral therapy decreased the incidence and severity of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND); however, no specific effective pharmacotherapy exists for HAND. Patients with HIV commonly have deficits in working memory and attention, which may negatively impact many other cognitive domains, leading to HAND. Since HAND may lead to loss of independence in activities of daily living and negative emotional well-being, and incur a high economic burden, effective treatments for HAND are urgently needed. This study aims to determine whether adaptive working memory training might improve cognitive functions and neural network efficiency and possibly decrease neuroinflammation. This study also aims to assess whether subjects with the LMX1A-rs4657412 TT(AA) genotype show greater training effects from working memory training than TC(AG) or CC(GG)-carriers. METHODS/DESIGN: 60 HIV-infected and 60 seronegative control participants will be randomized to a double-blind active-controlled study, using adaptive versus non-adaptive Cogmed Working Memory Training® (CWMT), 20-25 sessions over 5-8 weeks. Each subject will be assessed with near- and far-transfer cognitive tasks, self-reported mood and executive function questionnaires, and blood-oxygenation level-dependent functional MRI during working memory (n-back) and visual attention (ball tracking) tasks, at baseline, 1-month, and 6-months after CWMT. Furthermore, genotyping for LMX1A-rs4657412 will be performed to identify whether subjects with the TT(AA)-genotype show greater gain or neural efficiency after CWMT than those with other genotypes. Lastly, cerebrospinal fluid will be obtained before and after CWMT to explore changes in levels of inflammatory proteins (cytokines and chemokines) and monoamines. DISCUSSION: Improving working memory in HIV patients, using CWMT, might slow the progression or delay the onset of HAND. Observation of decreased brain activation or normalized neural networks, using fMRI, after CWMT would lead to a better understanding of how neural networks are modulated by CWMT. Moreover, validating the greater training gain in subjects with the LMX1A-TT(AA) genotype could lead to a personalized approach for future working memory training studies. Demonstrating and understanding the neural correlates of the efficacy of CWMT in HIV patients could lead to a safe adjunctive therapy for HAND, and possibly other brain disorders. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrial.gov, NCT02602418.

Association of dopamine transporter reduction with psychomotor impairment in methamphetamine abusers.

OBJECTIVE: Methamphetamine is a popular and highly addictive drug of abuse that has raised concerns because it has been shown in laboratory animals to be neurotoxic to dopamine terminals. The authors evaluated if similar changes occur in humans and assessed if they were functionally significant. METHOD: Positron emission tomography scans following administration of [(11)C]d-threo-methylphenidate (a dopamine transporter ligand) measured dopamine transporter levels (a marker of dopamine cell terminals) in the brains of 15 detoxified methamphetamine abusers and 18 comparison subjects. Neuropsychological tests were also performed to assess motor and cognitive function. RESULTS: Methamphetamine abusers showed significant dopamine transporter reduction in the striatum (mean differences of 27.8% in the caudate and 21.1% in the putamen) relative to the comparison subjects; this reduction was evident even in abusers who had been detoxified for at least 11 months. Dopamine transporter reduction was associated with motor slowing and memory impairment. CONCLUSIONS: These results provide evidence that methamphetamine at dose levels taken by human abusers of the drug leads to dopamine transporter reduction that is associated with motor and cognitive impairment. These results emphasize the urgency of alerting clinicians and the public of the long-term changes that methamphetamine can induce in the human brain.

Understanding the multiple functions of Nramp1.

Nramp1 regulates macrophage activation in infectious and autoimmune diseases. Nramp2 controls anaemia. Both are divalent cation (Fe(2+), Zn(2+), and Mn(2+)) transporters; Nramp2 a symporter of H(+) and metal ions, Nramp1 a H(+)/divalent cation antiporter. This provides a model for metal ion homeostasis in macrophages. Nramp2, localised to early endosomes, delivers extracellularly acquired divalent cations into the cytosol. Nramp1, localised to late endosomes/lysosomes, delivers divalent cations from the cytosol to phagolysosomes. Here, Fe(2+) generates antimicrobial hydroxyl radicals via the Fenton reaction. Zn(2+) and Mn(2+) may also influence endosomal metalloprotease activity and phagolysosome fusion. The many cellular functions dependent on metal ions as cofactors may explain the multiple pleiotropic effects of Nramp1, and its complex roles in infectious and autoimmune disease.

Low education as a possible risk factor for cognitive abnormalities in HIV-1: findings from the multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS).

The present study reports new and unexpected results of cognitive abnormalities among human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) asymptomatic subjects in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. The major purpose of our analyses is to estimate the separate and combined effects of serostatus and education level on the prevalence of cognitive abnormality. Cognitive "abnormality" was defined as performance that deviated > or = 2 SDs below the mean of the total seronegative group on at least one of the five neuropsychological screening tests (Grooved Pegboard, Verbal Fluency, Digit Span, Symbol Digit Modalities, Rey Auditory Verbal Learning). The predicted prevalence of cognitive abnormality was 38% in seropositive individuals with no more than 12 years of education, compared with < 17% in the other education-serostatus groups. This interaction between education level and serostatus remained after controlling for the possible confounding effects of age, ethnicity, CD4 level, depression, prior drug history, and learning disability using logistic regression. To account for these findings, we suggest that low education might reflect an indirect index of lower reserve capacity (i.e., a risk factor) that lowers the threshold for neuropsychological abnormalities in cases of early HIV-1 infection.

Computerized and conventional neuropsychological assessment of HIV-1-infected homosexual men.

We administered a battery of computerized and conventional neuropsychological measures to a group of 507 HIV-1 seronegative, 439 asymptomatic HIV-1 seropositive (Centers for Disease Control [CDC] groups 2 and 3), and 47 symptomatic HIV-1 seropositive (CDC group 4) homosexual/bisexual men enrolled in the Los Angeles center of the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. Tasks included multiple measures of attention, reaction time, memory, and psychomotor speed. Comparison of group means revealed significant differences in performance between HIV-1 seronegative and symptomatic HIV-1 seropositive men on computerized measures of choice reaction time and on conventional measures of memory and motor speed. These findings are consistent with previous research in this area and support the sensitivity of both computerized and conventional neuropsychological instruments for detecting cognitive changes found in symptomatic HIV-1-infected individuals. Asymptomatic seropositive men, on the other hand, did not differ significantly from seronegative subjects on any of the computerized or conventional neuropsychological measures. Only 13% of the asymptomatic HIV-1 seropositive men showed abnormal performance on a composite measure of cognitive functioning from the computerized test battery. This proportion did not differ significantly from that of seronegative controls (14%), but was significantly lower than the percentage of abnormal findings observed among symptomatic HIV-1 seropositive subjects (28%). Thus, results from this study support the hypothesis that the frequency of neuropsychological abnormalities in asymptomatic HIV-1-infected homosexual men is low and not statistically different from that of seronegative controls.

Highly active antiretroviral therapy reverses brain metabolite abnormalities in mild HIV dementia.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether cerebral metabolite abnormalities normalize with highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). BACKGROUND: Patients with HIV-cognitive motor complex (HIV-CMC) show cerebral metabolite abnormalities in the early stages of dementia. METHODS: Sixteen patients with HIV-CMC were evaluated before and after HAART, and compared with 15 HIV-negative healthy volunteers. Cerebral metabolite ratios and concentrations in the frontal lobe and basal ganglia were measured using proton MRS (1H MRS). RESULTS: In 14 of 16 patients who tolerated HAART, CD4 count increased by 133+/-101 cells/mm3 (p = 0.0003), HIV Dementia Scale score increased by 1.8+/-2.4 points (p = 0.02), and AIDS dementia complex (ADC) stage decreased by 0.54+/-0.54 points (p = 0.003). The initially increased choline/creatine (CHO/CR) reversed in the midfrontal cortex (-8.0%; p = 0.02) and in the basal ganglia (-14.7%; p = 0.01). The initially elevated myoinositol (MI)/CR and myoinositol concentration [MI] in the basal ganglia also decreased (MI/CR: -14.1%; p = 0.005; [MI]: 11.8%; p = 0.02), along with normalization of [MI] in the frontal white matter (11.4%; p = 0.05). Furthermore, the change in [MI] in the frontal white matter correlated with the change in CD4 count (r = -0.67, p = 0.03) and with the change in ADC stage (p = 0.04). CONCLUSIONS: HAART improves HIV-CMC in addition to systemic measures of HIV infection. 1H MRS detects improvement of brain injury measured by cerebral metabolites, particularly the glial marker [MI], in patients with early HIV-CMC after HAART. In addition, the degree of improvement in clinical severity of HIV-CMC is related to the degree of recovery with [MI].

Asymptomatic HIV infection does not cause EEG abnormalities: results from the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS)

We conducted EEG testing in 200 asymptomatic homosexual men, half of whom were HIV seropositive. We chose to include half of the subjects because they were rated as impaired on a neuropsychological screening test. We used both traditional visual EEG interpretation and quantitative EEG analysis. Abnormal EEGs and borderline degrees of EEG slowing occurred in 32% of these men. These EEG changes were not related to HIV serostatus. EEG changes did correlate with the impaired neuropsychological test performance. Clinicians faced with abnormal EEG results or borderline EEG slowing in an asymptomatic HIV-seropositive patient should not attribute the EEG change to effects of the serostatus itself but should look for other causes.

Temporal trends in the incidence of HIV-1-related neurologic diseases: Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study, 1985-1992.

OBJECTIVE: To describe temporal trends in the incidence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-related neurologic diseases in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study from 1985 to 1992. METHODS: The incidence rates of six neurologic disorders were examined: toxoplasmosis, cryptococcal meningitis, primary CNS lymphoma, progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, HIV dementia, and sensory neuropathy. Poisson modeling was used to test linear trends over time and the effects of progressive immunosuppression, antimicrobial prophylaxis, and antiretroviral drug therapy. RESULTS: There was an upward temporal trend in all incidence rates, except for HIV dementia. Progressive immunosuppression in the cohort explained all calendar trends except for sensory neuropathy, where an increasing temporal trend remained even after adjusting for CD4+ cell count, and for HIV dementia where a slight decline was noted, although the effects were not statistically significant. We noted a protective trend of antimicrobial prophylaxis on toxoplasmosis and cryptococcal meningitis, but, in contrast, use of antiretroviral agents was not protective against HIV dementia. Men receiving didanosine, zalcitabine, or stavudine were more likely to develop sensory neuropathy. CONCLUSION: Despite the earlier and more widespread use of antimicrobial and antiretroviral agents, neurologic conditions still occurred frequently in this cohort, with annual rates above 1.5 per 100 person-years for HIV dementia and sensory neuropathy. Sensory neuropathy seems to be increasing in incidence and HIV dementia declining slightly in this cohort. As the epidemic matures and more people with profound immunosuppression live longer, the overall incidence of HIV-related neurologic diseases can be expected to rise.

HIV-associated neurologic disease incidence changes:: Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study, 1990-1998.

This study examined the temporal trends in the incidence rates of HIV dementia, cryptococcal meningitis, toxoplasmosis, progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, and CNS lymphoma from January 1990 to December 1998 in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. The incidence rates for HIV dementia, cryptococcal meningitis, and lymphoma decreased following the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). The proportion of new cases of HIV dementia with a CD4 count in a higher range (i.e., 201 to 350) since 1996 may be increasing.

CSF antiretroviral drug penetrance and the treatment of HIV-associated psychomotor slowing.

The authors evaluated whether highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) with multiple CSF-penetrating drugs results in greater improvement in HIV-associated psychomotor slowing than HAART with a single CSF-penetrating drug. Both groups had improvement in CD4 count, plasma viral load, as well as two tests of psychomotor speed. Comparing the two groups, there were no differences in the mean change for CD4 count, viral load, or any of the neuropsychological tests. Multiple and single CSF-penetrating HAART may be equivalent for treating HIV-associated psychomotor slowing.

Neural correlates of attention and working memory deficits in HIV patients.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the neural correlates of attention and working memory deficits in patients with HIV-1. METHOD: fMRI was used to evaluate brain activity in 11 patients with HIV and 11 age-, sex-, education-, and handedness-matched seronegative subjects, while performing a battery of tasks that required different levels of attention for working memory. RESULTS: Patients with HIV showed greater brain activation (blood oxygenation level dependent signal changes) in some regions compared with control subjects while performing the same tasks. For the simpler tasks, patients with HIV showed greater activation in the parietal regions. However, with more difficult tasks, patients with HIV showed greater activation additionally in the frontal lobes. Reaction times during these tasks were slower but accuracy was similar in the patients with HIV compared with control subjects. CONCLUSION: Injury to the neural substrate caused by HIV infection may necessitate greater attentional modulation of the neural circuits, hence a greater use of the brain reserve; additional activation of the frontal lobes is required to perform the more complex tasks. The task-dependent increased frontal activation in patients with HIV suggests that the neural correlate of attentional deficits may be excessive attentional modulation as a result of frontostriatal brain injury.

A case-control study of HIV-1-related dementia and co-infection with HHV-8.

This nested case-control study assessed the putative protective effect of human herpesvirus-8 (HHV-8) against HIV-1-related dementia (dementia). The HHV-8 seropositivity of 210 male age- and HIV disease stage-matched cases and controls was compared. The overall HHV-8 seropositivity of 66% was similar among demented HIV-infected cases and nondemented HIV-infected controls.

Cognitive performance after progression to AIDS: a longitudinal study from the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study.

OBJECTIVE: To describe changes in cognitive functioning before and after development of an acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)-defining illness or CD4+ lymphocyte count < 200/mm3 in participants in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. METHODS: The study population included participants who either were diagnosed with an AIDS-defining illness (n = 52) or had at least one measurement of CD4+ count < 200/mm3 (n = 57) and who had at least four neuropsychological (NP) evaluations, two or more before and two or more after the AIDS diagnosis. A group of subjects with clinical diagnosis of dementia (n = 29) was also included for comparison. The NP test battery included measures of attention, memory, constructional abilities, and psychomotor speed. Longitudinal data analysis, using the generalized estimating equation, was performed separately for each NP measure. Time was measured in months from the date of clinical AIDS or CD4+ < 200/mm3. RESULTS: Before AIDS< the dementia group showed significant decline (slope different from zero) only on measures of psychomotor speed. For all other measures, there was no evidence of decline in performance before AIDS for the other groups. After development of AIDS, the group with clinical AIDS showed significant decline on psychomotor speed but none on the other cognitive measures. The group with CD4+ < 200/mm3 did not show significant decline on any of the cognitive measures after AIDS. As expected, the dementia group showed significant decline on all measures. Sensory neuropathy was associated with a significant decline in performance on measures of psychomotor speed after AIDS. Antiretroviral therapy was not associated with any measurable changes in NP performance. CONCLUSION: These results are consistent with previous findings showing no significant decline in cognitive functions before AIDS, unless overt dementia is present, and no decline in immunosuppressed subjects who have had no AIDS-defining illness. By contrast, in subjects who have developed clinical AIDS, there is mild decline in fine motor skills but no significant change in other cognitive domains.