Gas-modulating microcapsules for spatiotemporal control of hypoxia.

Oxygen is a vital molecule involved in regulating development, homeostasis, and disease. The oxygen levels in tissue vary from 1 to 14% with deviations from homeostasis impacting regulation of various physiological processes. In this work, we developed an approach to encapsulate enzymes at high loading capacity, which precisely controls the oxygen content in cell culture. Here, a single microcapsule is able to locally perturb the oxygen balance, and varying the concentration and distribution of matrix-embedded microcapsules provides spatiotemporal control. We demonstrate attenuation of hypoxia signaling in populations of stem cells, cancer cells, endothelial cells, cancer spheroids, and intestinal organoids. Varying capsule placement, media formulation, and timing of replenishment yields tunable oxygen gradients, with concurrent spatial growth and morphogenesis in a single well. Capsule containing hydrogel films applied to chick chorioallantoic membranes encourages neovascularization, providing scope for topical treatments or hydrogel wound dressings. This platform can be used in a variety of formats, including deposition in hydrogels, as granular solids for 3D bioprinting, and as injectable biomaterials. Overall, this platform's simplicity and flexibility will prove useful for fundamental studies of oxygen-mediated processes in virtually any in vitro or in vivo format, with scope for inclusion in biomedical materials for treating injury or disease.

In pursuit of biomarkers for predicting susceptibility to activity-based anorexia in adolescent female rats.

OBJECTIVE: Identifying risk factors that contribute to the development of anorexia nervosa (AN) is critical for the implementation of early intervention strategies. Anxiety, obsessive-compulsive behavior, and immune dysfunction may be involved in the development of AN; however, their direct influence on susceptibility to the condition remains unclear. Here, we used the activity-based anorexia (ABA) model to examine whether activity, anxiety-like behavior, compulsive behavior, and circulating immune markers predict the subsequent development of pathological weight loss. METHOD: Female Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 44) underwent behavioral testing before exposure to ABA conditions after which they were separated into susceptible and resistant subpopulations. Blood was sampled before behavioral testing and after recovery from ABA to screen for proinflammatory cytokines. RESULTS: Rats that were vulnerable to pathological weight loss differed significantly from resistant rats on all key ABA parameters. While the primary measures of anxiety-like or compulsive behavior were not shown to predict vulnerability to ABA, increased locomotion and anxiety-like behavior were both associated with the extent of weight loss in susceptible but not resistant animals. Moreover, the change in expression of proinflammatory markers IL-4 and IL-6 evoked by ABA was associated with discrete vulnerability factors. Intriguingly, behavior related to risk assessment was shown to predict vulnerability to ABA. DISCUSSION: We did not find undisputable behavioral or immune predictors of susceptibility to pathological weight loss in the ABA rat model. Future research should examine the role of cognition in the development of ABA, dysfunction of which may represent an endophenotype linking anorectic, anxiety-like and compulsive behavior. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE: Anorexia nervosa (AN) has among the highest mortality rates of all psychiatric disorders and treatment options remain limited in their efficacy. Understanding what types of risk factors contribute to the development of AN is essential for implementing early intervention strategies. This study describes how some of the most common psychological features of AN could be used to predict susceptibility to pathological weight loss in a well-established animal model.

Psilocybin increases optimistic engagement over time: computational modelling of behaviour in rats.

Psilocybin has shown promise as a novel pharmacological intervention for treatment of depression, where post-acute effects of psilocybin treatment have been associated with increased positive mood and decreased pessimism. Although psilocybin is proving to be effective in clinical trials for treatment of psychiatric disorders, the information processing mechanisms affected by psilocybin are not well understood. Here, we fit active inference and reinforcement learning computational models to a novel two-armed bandit reversal learning task capable of capturing engagement behaviour in rats. The model revealed that after receiving psilocybin, rats achieve more rewards through increased task engagement, mediated by modification of forgetting rates and reduced loss aversion. These findings suggest that psilocybin may afford an optimism bias that arises through altered belief updating, with translational potential for clinical populations characterised by lack of optimism.

Liver click dECM hydrogels for engineering hepatic microenvironments.

Decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) hydrogels provide tissue-specific microenvironments which accommodate physiological cellular phenotypes in 3D in vitro cell cultures. However, their formation hinges on collagen fibrillogenesis, a complex process which limits regulation of physicochemical properties. Hence, achieving reproducible results with dECM hydrogels poses as a challenge. Here, we demonstrate that thiolation of solubilized liver dECM enables rapid formation of covalently crosslinked hydrogels via Michael-type addition, allowing for precise control over mechanical properties and superior organotypic biological activity. Investigation of various decellularization methodologies revealed that treatment of liver tissue with Triton X-100 and ammonium hydroxide resulted in near complete DNA removal with significant retention of the native liver proteome. Chemical functionalization of pepsin-solubilized liver dECMs via 1-ethyl-3(3-dimethylamino)propyl carbodiimide (EDC)/N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) coupling of l-Cysteine created thiolated liver dECM (dECM-SH), which rapidly reacted with 4-arm polyethylene glycol (PEG)-maleimide to form optically clear hydrogels under controlled conditions. Importantly, Young's moduli could be precisely tuned between 1 - 7 kPa by varying polymer concentrations, enabling close replication of healthy and fibrotic liver conditions in in vitro cell cultures. Click dECM-SH hydrogels were cytocompatible, supported growth of HepG2 and HepaRG liver cells, and promoted liver-specific functional phenotypes as evidenced by increased metabolic activity, as well CYP1A2 and CYP3A4 activity and excretory function when compared to monolayer culture and collagen-based hydrogels. Our findings demonstrate that click-functionalized dECM hydrogels offer a highly controlled, reproducible alternative to conventional tissue-derived hydrogels for in vitro cell culture applications. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Traditional dECM hydrogels face challenges in reproducibility and mechanical property control due to variable crosslinking processes. We introduce a click hydrogel based on porcine liver decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) that circumnavigates these challenges. After optimizing liver decellularization for ECM retention, we integrated thiol-functionalized liver dECM with polyethylene-glycol derivatives through Michael-type addition click chemistry, enabling rapid, room-temperature gelation. This offers enhanced control over the hydrogel's mechanical and biochemical properties. The resultant click dECM hydrogels mimic the liver's natural ECM and exhibit greater mechanical tunability and handling ease, facilitating their application in high-throughput and industrial settings. Moreover, these hydrogels significantly improve the function of HepaRG-derived hepatocytes in 3D culture, presenting an advancement for liver tissue cell culture models for drug testing applications.

Differential Cytokine Responses of APOE3 and APOE4 Blood-brain Barrier Cell Types to SARS-CoV-2 Spike Proteins.

SARS-CoV-2 spike proteins have been shown to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in mice and affect the integrity of human BBB cell models. However, the effects of SARS-CoV-2 spike proteins in relation to sporadic, late onset, Alzheimer's disease (AD) risk have not been extensively investigated. Here we characterized the individual and combined effects of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein subunits S1 RBD, S1 and S2 on BBB cell types (induced brain endothelial-like cells (iBECs) and astrocytes (iAstrocytes)) generated from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) harboring low (APOE3 carrier) or high (APOE4 carrier) relative Alzheimer's risk. We found that treatment with spike proteins did not alter iBEC integrity, although they induced the expression of several inflammatory cytokines. iAstrocytes exhibited a robust inflammatory response to SARS-CoV-2 spike protein treatment, with differences found in the levels of cytokine secretion between spike protein-treated APOE3 and APOE4 iAstrocytes. Finally, we tested the effects of potentially anti-inflammatory drugs during SARS-CoV-2 spike protein exposure in iAstrocytes, and discovered different responses between spike protein treated APOE4 iAstrocytes and APOE3 iAstrocytes, specifically in relation to IL-6, IL-8 and CCL2 secretion. Overall, our results indicate that APOE3 and APOE4 iAstrocytes respond differently to anti-inflammatory drug treatment during SARS-CoV-2 spike protein exposure with potential implications to therapeutic responses.

Vat photopolymerization 3D printed microfluidic devices for organ-on-a-chip applications.

Organs-on-a-chip, or OoCs, are microfluidic tissue culture devices with micro-scaled architectures that repeatedly achieve biomimicry of biological phenomena. They are well positioned to become the primary pre-clinical testing modality as they possess high translational value. Current methods of fabrication have facilitated the development of many custom OoCs that have generated promising results. However, the reliance on microfabrication and soft lithographic fabrication techniques has limited their prototyping turnover rate and scalability. Additive manufacturing, known commonly as 3D printing, shows promise to expedite this prototyping process, while also making fabrication easier and more reproducible. We briefly introduce common 3D printing modalities before identifying two sub-types of vat photopolymerization - stereolithography (SLA) and digital light processing (DLP) - as the most advantageous fabrication methods for the future of OoC development. We then outline the motivations for shifting to 3D printing, the requirements for 3D printed OoCs to be competitive with the current state of the art, and several considerations for achieving successful 3D printed OoC devices touching on design and fabrication techniques, including a survey of commercial and custom 3D printers and resins. In all, we aim to form a guide for the end-user to facilitate the in-house generation of 3D printed OoCs, along with the future translation of these important devices.

Rapid, automated, and experimenter-free touchscreen testing reveals reciprocal interactions between cognitive flexibility and activity-based anorexia in female rats.

Anorexia nervosa has among the highest mortality rates of any psychiatric disorder and is characterized by cognitive inflexibility that persists after weight recovery and contributes to the chronic nature of the condition. What remains unknown is whether cognitive inflexibility predisposes individuals to anorexia nervosa, a question that is difficult to address in human studies. Our previous work using the most well-established animal model of anorexia nervosa, known as activity-based anorexia (ABA) identified a neurobiological link between cognitive inflexibility and susceptibility to pathological weight loss in female rats. However, testing flexible learning prior to exposure to ABA in the same animals has been thus far impossible due to the length of training required and the necessity of daily handling, which can itself influence the development of ABA. Here, we describe experiments that validate and optimize the first fully-automated and experimenter-free touchscreen cognitive testing system for rats and use this novel system to examine the reciprocal links between reversal learning (an assay of cognitive flexibility) and weight loss in the ABA model. First, we show substantially reduced testing time and increased throughput compared to conventional touchscreen testing methods because animals engage in test sessions at their own direction and can complete multiple sessions per day without experimenter involvement. We also show that, contrary to expectations, cognitive inflexibility measured by this reversal learning task does not predispose rats to pathological weight loss in ABA. Instead, rats that were predisposed to weight loss in ABA were more quickly able to learn this reversal task prior to ABA exposure. Intriguingly, we show reciprocal links between ABA exposure and cognitive flexibility, with ABA-exposed (but weight-recovered) rats performing much worse than ABA naïve rats on the reversal learning task, an impairment that did not occur to the same extent in rats exposed to food restriction conditions alone. On the other hand, animals that had been trained on reversal learning were better able to resist weight loss upon subsequent exposure to the ABA model. We also uncovered some stable behavioral differences between ABA susceptible versus resistant rats during touchscreen test sessions using machine learning tools that highlight possible predictors of anorectic phenotypes. These findings shed new light on the relationship between cognitive inflexibility and pathological weight loss and provide targets for future studies using the ABA model to investigate potential novel pharmacotherapies for anorexia nervosa.

The BDNF Val66Met Polymorphism Does Not Increase Susceptibility to Activity-Based Anorexia in Rats.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is abundantly expressed in brain regions involved in both homeostatic and hedonic feeding, and it circulates at reduced levels in patients with anorexia nervosa (AN). A single nucleotide polymorphism in the gene encoding for BDNF (Val66Met) has been associated with worse outcomes in patients with AN, and it is shown to promote anorectic behaviour in a mouse model of caloric restriction paired with social isolation stress. Previous animal models of the Val66Met polymorphism have been in mice because of the greater ease in modification of the mouse genome, however, the most widely-accepted animal model of AN, known as activity-based anorexia (ABA), is most commonly conducted in rats. Here, we examine ABA outcomes in a novel rat model of the BDNF Val66Met allelic variation (Val68Met), and we investigate the role of this polymorphism in feeding, food choice and sucrose preference, and energy expenditure. We demonstrate that the BDNF Val68Met polymorphism does not influence susceptibility to ABA or any aspect of feeding behaviour. The discrepancy between these results and previous reports in mice may relate to species-specific differences in stress reactivity.

A sporadic Alzheimer's blood-brain barrier model for developing ultrasound-mediated delivery of Aducanumab and anti-Tau antibodies.

Rationale: The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a major impediment to therapeutic intracranial drug delivery for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). Focused ultrasound applied together with microbubbles (FUS+MB) is a novel technique to transiently open the BBB and increase drug delivery. Evidence suggests that FUS+MB is safe, however, the effects of FUS+MB on human BBB cells, especially in the context of AD, remain sparsely investigated. In addition, there currently are no cell platforms to test for FUS+MB-mediated drug delivery. Methods: Here we generated BBB cells (induced brain endothelial-like cells (iBECs) and astrocytes (iAstrocytes)) from apolipoprotein E gene allele E4 (APOE4, high sporadic AD risk) and allele E3 (APOE3, lower AD risk) carrying patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). We established mono- and co-culture models of human sporadic AD and control BBB cells to investigate the effects of FUS+MB on BBB cell phenotype and to screen for the delivery of two potentially therapeutic AD antibodies, an Aducanumab-analogue (AduhelmTM; anti-amyloid-ß) and a novel anti-Tau antibody, RNF5. We then developed a novel hydrogel-based 2.5D BBB model as a step towards a more physiologically relevant FUS+MB drug delivery platform. Results: When compared to untreated cells, the delivery of Aducanumab-analogue and RNF5 was significantly increased (up to 1.73 fold), across the Transwell-based BBB models following FUS+MB treatment. Our results also demonstrated the safety of FUS+MB indicated by minimal changes in iBEC transcriptome as well as little or no changes in iBEC or iAstrocyte viability and inflammatory responses within the first 24 h post FUS+MB. Furthermore, we demonstrated successful iBEC barrier formation in our novel 2.5D hydrogel-based BBB model with significantly increased delivery (1.4 fold) of Aducanumab-analogue following FUS+MB. Conclusion: Our results demonstrate a robust and reproducible approach to utilize patient cells for FUS+MB-mediated drug delivery screening in vitro. With such a cell platform for FUS+MB research previously not reported, it has the potential to identify novel FUS+MB-deliverable drugs as well as screen for cell- and patient-specific effects of FUS+MB, accelerating the use of FUS+MB as a therapeutic modality in AD.

Suppression of Corticostriatal Circuit Activity Improves Cognitive Flexibility and Prevents Body Weight Loss in Activity-Based Anorexia in Rats.

BACKGROUND: The ability to adapt behavior to changing environmental circumstances, or cognitive flexibility, is impaired in multiple psychiatric conditions, including anorexia nervosa (AN). Exaggerated prefrontal cortical activity likely underpins the inflexible thinking and rigid behaviors exhibited by patients with AN. A better understanding of the neural basis of cognitive flexibility is necessary to enable treatment approaches that may target impaired executive control. METHODS: Utilizing the activity-based anorexia (ABA) model and touchscreen operant learning paradigms, we investigated the neurobiological link between pathological weight loss and cognitive flexibility. We used pathway-specific chemogenetics to selectively modulate activity in neurons of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) projecting to the nucleus accumbens shell (AcbSh) in female Sprague Dawley rats. RESULTS: DREADD (designer receptor exclusively activated by designer drugs)-based inhibition of the mPFC-AcbSh pathway prevented weight loss in ABA and improved flexibility during early reversal learning by reducing perseverative responding. Modulation of activity within the mPFC-AcbSh pathway had no effect on running, locomotor activity, or feeding under ad libitum conditions, indicating the specific involvement of this circuit in conditions of dysregulated reward. CONCLUSIONS: Parallel attenuation of weight loss in ABA and improvement of cognitive flexibility following suppression of mPFC-AcbSh activity align with the relationship between disrupted prefrontal function and cognitive rigidity in AN patients. The identification of a neurobiological correlate between cognitive flexibility and pathological weight loss provides a unique insight into the executive control of feeding behavior. It also highlights the utility of the ABA model for understanding the biological bases of cognitive deficits in AN and provides context for new treatment strategies.

The potential impact of bushfire smoke on brain health.

Smoke from bushfires (also known as wildfires or forest fires) has blanketed large regions of Australia during the southern hemisphere summer of 2019/2020, potentially endangering residents who breathe the polluted air. While such air pollution is known to cause respiratory irritation and damage, its effect on the brain is not well described. In this review, we aim to outline the potentially damaging effects of bushfire smoke on brain health. We also describe the composition of air pollution, including ambient particulate matter (PM) and bushfire PM, before covering the general health effects of each. The investigated entry routes for ambient PM and postulated entry routes for bushfire PM are discussed, along with epidemiological and experimental evidence of the effect of both PMs in the brain. It appears that bushfire PM may be more toxic than ambient PM, and that it may enter the brain through extrapulmonary or olfactory routes to cause inflammation and oxidative stress. Ultimately, this review highlights the desperate requirement of greater research into the effects of bushfire PM on brain health.

Evaluating anhedonia in the activity-based anorexia (ABA) rat model.

Patients suffering anorexia nervosa (AN) become anhedonic, in other words, unable or unwilling to derive normal pleasures and avoid rewarding outcomes, most profoundly in food intake. The neurobiological underpinnings of anhedonia are likely to involve mesolimbic reward circuitry. We propose here that this circuitry and its involvement in AN can be investigated using the activity-based anorexia (ABA) rodent model that recapitulates many of the characteristics of the human condition, most notably rapid weight loss. Preference for sweetened water was used to assay hedonic processing in female Sprague-Dawley rats exposed to the ABA protocol, which involves free access to running wheels paired with time-limited access to food. This protocol uncovered a transient anhedonia in only one quarter of cases; however, exposure to running wheels alone was associated with a rapid aversion to sweetened water (F1.833, 20.17 = 78.29, p < .0001), and time-limited food access alone did not impact preference (F2.205, 24.25 = 0.305, p = .761). High levels of running wheel activity prior to the onset of food restriction increased susceptibility to body weight loss in ABA (F10,196.129 = 2.069, p = .029) and food anticipatory activity predicted subsequent food intake only for rats that were resistant to body weight loss (r = 0.44, p = .001). These data are inconsistent with the hypothesis that anhedonia underscores the precipitous weight loss in ABA, however, they highlight the predictive nature of hyperactivity in susceptibility to the ABA paradigm. These results will help inform the neurobiological framework of ABA and provide insight into the mechanisms of reward relevant to feeding and weight loss.

The Role of Mesolimbic Reward Neurocircuitry in Prevention and Rescue of the Activity-Based Anorexia (ABA) Phenotype in Rats.

Patients suffering from anorexia nervosa (AN) become anhedonic; unable or unwilling to derive normal pleasures and avoid rewarding outcomes, most profoundly in food intake. The activity-based anorexia (ABA) model recapitulates many of the characteristics of the human condition, including anhedonia, and allows investigation of the underlying neurobiology of AN. The potential for increased neuronal activity in reward/hedonic circuits to prevent and rescue weight loss is investigated in this model. The mesolimbic pathway extending from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the nucleus accumbens (NAc) was activated using a dual viral strategy, involving retrograde transport of Cre (CAV-2-Cre) to the VTA and coincident injection of DREADD receptors (AAV-hSyn-DIO-hM3D(Gq)-mCherry). Systemic clozapine-n-oxide (CNO; 0.3 mg/kg) successfully recruited a large proportion of the VTA-NAc dopaminergic projections, with activity evidenced by colocalization with elevated levels of Fos protein. The effects of reward circuit activation on energy balance and predicted survival was investigated in female Sprague-Dawley rats, where free access to running wheels was paired with time-limited (90 min) access to food, a paradigm (ABA) which will cause anorexia and death if unchecked. Excitation of the reward pathway substantially increased food intake and food anticipatory activity (FAA) to prevent ABA-associated weight loss, while overall locomotor activity was unchanged. Similar activation of reward circuitry, delayed until establishment of the ABA phenotype, rescued rats from their precipitous weight loss. Although these data are consistent with shifts primarily in food intake, the contribution of mechanisms including energy expenditure to survival remains to be determined. These results will inform the neurobiological underpinnings of AN, and provide insight into the mechanisms of reward circuitry relevant to feeding and weight loss.