Characterizing human movement patterns using GPS data loggers in an area of persistent malaria in Zimbabwe along the Mozambique border.

BACKGROUND: Human mobility is a driver for the reemergence or resurgence of malaria and has been identified as a source of cross-border transmission. However, movement patterns are difficult to measure in rural areas where malaria risk is high. In countries with malaria elimination goals, it is essential to determine the role of mobility on malaria transmission to implement appropriate interventions. METHODS: A study was conducted in Mutasa District, Zimbabwe, to investigate human movement patterns in an area of persistent transmission along the Mozambique border. Over 1 year, a convenience sample of 20 participants/month was recruited from active malaria surveillance cohorts to carry an IgotU® GT-600 global positioning system (GPS) data logger during all daily activities. Consenting participants were tested for malaria at data logger distribution using rapid antigen diagnostic tests and completed a survey questionnaire. GPS data were analyzed using a trajectory analysis tool, and participant movement patterns were characterized throughout the study area and across the border into Mozambique using movement intensity maps, activity space plots, and statistical analyses. RESULTS: From June 2016-May 2017, 184 participants provided movement tracks encompassing > 350,000 data points and nearly 8000 person-days. Malaria prevalence at logger distribution was 3.7%. Participants traveled a median of 2.8 km/day and spent a median of 4.6 h/day away from home. Movement was widespread within and outside the study area, with participants traveling up to 500 km from their homes. Indices of mobility were higher in the dry season than the rainy season (median km traveled/day = 3.5 vs. 2.2, P = 0.03), among male compared to female participants (median km traveled/day = 3.8 vs. 2.0, P = 0.0008), and among adults compared to adolescents (median total km traveled = 104.6 vs. 59.5, P = 0.05). Half of participants traveled outside the study area, and 30% traveled into Mozambique, including 15 who stayed in Mozambique overnight. CONCLUSIONS: Study participants in Mutasa District, Zimbabwe, were highly mobile throughout the year. Many participants traveled long distances from home, including overnight trips into Mozambique, with clear implications for malaria control. Interventions targeted at mobile populations and cross-border transmission may be effective in preventing malaria introductions in this region.

Growth improvement following antiretroviral therapy initiation in children with perinatally-acquired HIV diagnosed in older childhood in Zimbabwe: a prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Children who initiate antiretroviral therapy (ART) before age 5 years can recover height and weight compared to uninfected peers, but growth outcomes are unknown for children initiating ART at older ages. We investigated factors associated with growth failure at ART initiation and modelled growth by age on ART. METHODS: We conducted secondary analysis of cohort of children aged 6-15 years late-diagnosed with HIV in Harare, Zimbabwe, with entry at ART initiation in 2013-2015. Factors associated with height-for-age (HAZ), weight-for-age (WAZ) and BMI-for-age (BAZ) z-scores <- 2 (stunting, underweight and wasting respectively) at ART initiation were assessed using multivariable logistic regression. These outcomes were compared at ART initiation and 12 month follow-up using paired t-tests. HAZ and BAZ were modelled using restricted cubic splines. RESULTS: Participants (N = 302; 51.6% female; median age 11 years) were followed for a median of 16.6 months (IQR 11.0-19.8). At ART initiation 34.8% were stunted, 34.5% underweight and 15.1% wasted. Stunting was associated with age ≥ 12 years, CD4 count < 200 cells/µl, tuberculosis (TB) history and history of hospitalisation. Underweight was associated with older age, male sex and TB history, and wasting was associated with older age, TB history and hospitalisation. One year post-initiation, t-tests showed increased WAZ (p = 0.007) and BAZ (p = 0.004), but no evidence of changed HAZ (p = 0.85). Modelling showed that HAZ and BAZ decreased in early adolescence for boys on ART, but not girls. CONCLUSION: Stunting and underweight were prevalent at ART initiation among late-diagnosed children, and HAZ did not improve after 1 year. Adolescent boys with perinatally acquired HIV and late diagnosis are particularly at risk of growth failure in puberty.

Steep Rebound of Chloroquine-Sensitive Plasmodium falciparum in Zimbabwe.

Removal of chloroquine from national malaria formularies can lead to the reversion of resistant Plasmodium falciparum to wild-type. We report a steep decline in chloroquine-resistant P falciparum within 10 years of national discontinuation of chloroquine monotherapy in Zimbabwe. Drug resistance surveillance is a vital component of malaria control programs, and the experience with chloroquine in Zimbabwe and elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa is illustrative of the potentially rapid and dramatic impact of drug policy on antimalarial resistance.

Detecting Plasmodium falciparum in community surveys: a comparison of Paracheck Pf® Test and ICT Malaria Pf® Cassette Test to polymerase chain reaction in Mutasa District, Zimbabwe.

BACKGROUND: Microscopy and rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) are the main techniques used to diagnose malaria. While microscopy is considered the gold standard, RDTs have established popularity as they allow for rapid diagnosis with minimal technical skills. This study aimed to compare the diagnostic performance of two Plasmodium falciparum histidine-rich protein 2 (PfHRP2)-based RDTs (Paracheck Pf® Test (Paracheck) and Malaria Pf™ ICT (ICT)) to polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in a community survey. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted between October 2012 and December 2014 in Mutasa District, Manicaland Province, eastern Zimbabwe. Households were randomly selected using satellite imagery, and 224 households were visited. Residents present in the household on the date of the visit were recruited for the study. Participants of all age groups from the selected households were screened with Paracheck and ICT RDTs in parallel. Dried blood spots (DBS) and thin and thick smears were collected. Parasite DNA extracted from the DBS was subjected to nested PCR targeting the Plasmodium cytochrome b mitochondrial gene. Data analysis was performed using the Cohen's Kappa test to determine the interrater agreement and the sensitivity and specificity of the diagnostic test were reported. RESULTS: Results from a total of 702 participants were analysed. Most were females, 397 (57%), and the median age of participants was 21 years with an interquartile range of 9-39 years. Of those who were screened, 8 (1.1%), 35 (5.0%), and 21 (2.9%) were malaria parasite positive by microscopy, RDT and PCR, respectively. Paracheck and ICT RDTs had a 100% agreement. Comparing RDT and PCR results, 34 participants (4.8%) had discordant results. Most of the discordant cases were RDT positive but PCR negative (n = 24). Half of those RDT positive, but PCR negative individuals reported anti-malarials to use in the past month, which is significantly higher than reported anti-malarial drug use in the population (p < 0.001). The participant was febrile on the day of the visit, but relying on PfHRP2-based RDT would miss this case. Among the diagnostic methods evaluated, with reference to PCR, the sensitivity was higher with the RDT (52.4%) while specificity was higher with the microscopy (99.9%). The positive predictive value (PPV) was higher with the microscopy (87.5%), while the negative predictive values were similar for both microscopy and RDTs (98%). Overall, a strong correlated agreement with PCR was observed for the microscopy (97.9%) and the RDTs (95.2%). CONCLUSIONS: Paracheck and ICT RDTs showed 100% agreement and can be used interchangeably. As malaria transmission declines and Zimbabwe aims to reach malaria elimination, management of infected individuals with low parasitaemia as well as non-P. falciparum infection can be critical.

Results-based financing as a strategic purchasing intervention: some progress but much further to go in Zimbabwe?

BACKGROUND: Results-Based Financing (RBF) has proliferated in the health sectors of low and middle income countries, especially those which are fragile or conflict-affected, and has been presented by some as a way of reforming and strengthening strategic purchasing. However, few if any studies have empirically and systematically examined how RBF impacts on health care purchasing. This article examines this question in the context of Zimbabwe's national RBF programme. METHODS: The article is based on a documentary review, including 60 documents from 2008 to 2018, and 40 key informant (KI) interviews conducted with international, national and district level stakeholders in early 2018 in Zimbabwe. Interviews and analysis of both datasets followed an existing framework for strategic purchasing, adapted to reflect changes over. RESULTS: We find that some functions, such as assessing service infrastructure gaps, are unaffected by RBF, while others, such as mobilising resources, are partially affected, as RBF has focused on one package of care (maternal and child health services) within the wider essential health care, and has contributed important but marginal costs. Overall purchasing arrangements remain fragmented. Limited improvements have been made to community engagement. The clearest changes to purchasing arrangements relate to providers, at least in relation to the RBF services. Its achievements included enabling flexible resources to reach primary providers, funding supervision and emphasising the importance of reporting. CONCLUSIONS: Our analysis suggests that RBF in Zimbabwe, at least at this early stage, is mainly functioning as an additional source of funding and as a provider payment mechanism, focussed on the primary care level for MCH services. RBF in this case brought focus to specific outputs but remained one provider payment mechanism amongst many, with limited traction over the main service delivery inputs and programmes. Zimbabwe's economic and political crisis provided an important entry point for RBF, but Zimbabwe did not present a 'blank slate' for RBF to reform: it was a functional health system pre-crisis, which enabled relatively swift scale-up of RBF but also meant that the potential for restructuring of institutional purchasing relationships was limited. This highlights the need for realistic and contextually tailored expectations of RBF.

Unexpectedly High Prevalence of Cytomegalovirus DNAemia in Older Children and Adolescents With Perinatally Acquired Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection.

BACKGROUND: Older children and adolescents with perinatally acquired human immunodeficiency virus (PHIV) infection in Africa experience multiple comorbidities that are not typical of HIV-associated opportunistic infections, including growth impairment and chronic lung disease. We examined associations between plasma cytomegalovirus (CMV) DNA and lung function and growth. METHODS: Plasma CMV DNA loads were measured children aged 6-16 years with PHIV (n = 402) and HIV-uninfected controls (n = 224). The HIV-infected children were either newly diagnosed or known HIV infected and stable on antiretroviral therapy (ART) for >6 months. CMV DNA loads were measured using quantitative polymerase chain reaction. CMV DNAemia was modeled as a time-varying outcome using longitudinal mixed-effects logistic regression. RESULTS: At enrollment, CMV DNAemia ≥1000 copies/mL (defined as "clinically significant") was detected in 5.8% of uninfected children, 14.7% of HIV-infected participants stable on ART, and 22.6% of HIV-infected ART-naive children (χ2 = 23.8, P < .001). The prevalence of CMV DNAemia ≥1000 copies/mL was associated with CD4 counts <350 cells/µL. Among HIV-infected ART-naive children, the presence of CMV DNAemia of ≥1000 copies/mL was independently associated with reduced lung function (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 3.23; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.23-8.46; P = .017). Among ART-treated children, stunting was associated with CMV DNAemia of ≥1000 copies/mL (aOR = 2.79; 95% CI, 0.97-8.02; P = .057). CONCLUSIONS: Clinically significant levels of CMV DNAemia were common in older children with PHIV, even those on ART, suggesting a role for inadequately controlled CMV infection in the pathogenesis of PHIV comorbidities in Africa.

Flexibility of deployment: challenges and policy options for retaining health workers during crisis in Zimbabwe.

BACKGROUND: Zimbabwe experienced a socio-economic crisis from 1997 to 2008 which heavily impacted all sectors. In this context, human resource managers were confronted with the challenge of health worker shortage in rural areas and, at the same time, had to operate under a highly centralised, government-centred system which defined health worker deployment policies. This study examines the implementation of deployment policies in Zimbabwe before, during and after the crisis in order to analyse how the official policy environment evolved over time, present the actual practices used by managers to cope with the crisis and draw lessons. 'Deployment' here was considered to include all the human resource management functions for getting staff into posts and managing subsequent movements: recruitment, bonding, transfer and secondment. The study contributes to address the existing paucity of evidence on flexibility on implementation of policies in crisis/conflict settings. METHODS: This retrospective study investigates deployment policies in government and faith-based organisation health facilities in Zimbabwe before, during and after the crisis. A document review was done to understand the policy environment. In-depth interviews with key informant including policy makers, managers and health workers in selected facilities in three mainly rural districts in the Midlands province were conducted. Data generated was analysed using a framework approach. RESULTS: Before the crisis, health workers were allowed to look for jobs on their own, while during the crisis, they were given three choices and after the crisis the preference choice was withdrawn. The government froze recruitment in all sectors during the crisis which severely affected health workers' deployment. In practice, the implementation of the deployment policies was relatively flexible. In some cases, health workers were transferred to retain them, the recruitment freeze was temporarily lifted to fill priority vacancies, the length of the bonding period was reduced including relaxation of withholding certificates, and managers used secondment to relocate workers to priority areas. CONCLUSION: Flexibility in the implementation of deployment policies during crises may increase the resilience of the system and contribute to the retention of health workers. This, in turn, may assist in ensuring coverage of health services in hard-to-reach areas.

Disability, social functioning and school inclusion among older children and adolescents living with HIV in Zimbabwe.

OBJECTIVE: Increasing numbers of children with HIV are surviving to adolescence and encountering multiple clinical and social consequences of long-standing HIV infection. We aimed to investigate the association between HIV and disability, social functioning and school inclusion among 6- to 16-year-olds in Zimbabwe. METHODS: HIV-infected children receiving antiretroviral therapy from a public-sector HIV clinic and HIV-uninfected children attending primary care clinics in the same catchment area were recruited. Standardised questionnaires were used to collect socio-demographic, social functioning and disability data. Multivariable logistic regression was used to assess the relationship between HIV status and disability and functioning. RESULTS: We recruited 202 HIV-infected and 285 HIV-uninfected children. There was no difference in age and gender between the two groups, but a higher proportion of HIV-infected children were orphaned. The prevalence of any disability was higher in HIV-infected than uninfected children (37.6% vs. 18.5%, P < 0.001). HIV-infected children were more likely to report anxiety (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 4.4; 95% CI 2.4, 8.1), low mood (aOR 4.2; 2.1, 8.4) and difficulty forming friendships (aOR 14.8; 1.9, 116.6) than uninfected children. Children with HIV also reported more missed school days, repeating a school year and social exclusion in class. These associations remained apparent when comparing children with HIV and disability to those with HIV but no disabilities. CONCLUSIONS: Children with HIV commonly experience disabilities, and this is associated with social and educational exclusion. Rehabilitation and support services are needed to facilitate educational attainment and social participation in this group.

Malaria knowledge and bed net use in three transmission settings in southern Africa.

BACKGROUND: Insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) reduce malaria morbidity and mortality in endemic areas. Despite increasing availability, the use of ITNs remains limited in some settings. Poor malaria knowledge is a barrier to the widespread use of ITNs. The goal of this study was to assess the levels of malaria knowledge and evaluate factors associated with bed net use among individuals residing in three regions of southern Africa with different levels of malaria transmission and control. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted on a sample of 7535 residents recruited from 2066 households in Mutasa District, Zimbabwe (seasonal malaria transmission), Choma District, Zambia (low transmission) and Nchelenge District, Zambia (high transmission), between March 2012 and March 2017. A standardized questionnaire was used to collect data on demographics, malaria-related knowledge and use of preventive measures. Multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to assess determinants of bed net use. RESULTS: Most of the 3836 adult participants correctly linked mosquito bites to malaria (85.0%), mentioned at least one malaria symptom (95.5%) and knew of the benefit of sleeping under an ITN. Bed net ownership and use were highest in Choma and Nchelenge Districts and lowest in Mutasa District. In multivariate analyses, knowledge of ITNs was associated with a 30-40% increased likelihood of bed net use after adjusting for potential confounders across all sites. Other factors significantly associated with bed net use were age, household size and socioeconomic status, although the direction, strength and size of association varied by study site. Importantly, participants aged 5-14 years had reduced odds of sleeping under a bed net compared to children younger than 5 years. CONCLUSION: Relevant knowledge of ITNs translated into the expected preventive behaviour of sleeping under a bed net, underscoring the need for continued health messaging on malaria prevention. The implementation and delivery of malaria control and elimination interventions needs to consider socioeconomic equity gaps, and target school-age children to ensure access to and improve utilization of ITNs.

Familial silence surrounding HIV and non-disclosure of HIV status to older children and adolescents.

Increasing numbers of children with HIV are surviving to adolescence and beyond, many of whom are orphaned. Disclosure of childrens' and adolescents' HIV status has been shown to improve adherence and retention in HIV treatment programmes. We investigated caregiving arrangements and intra-familial experience of HIV and its relationship to HIV disclosure to older children and adolescents. Children aged 6-15 years, newly diagnosed with HIV infection or previously diagnosed but not engaged in HIV care, were recruited from seven primary care clinics in Harare, Zimbabwe. Their caregivers responded to a nurse-led questionnaire. Family history of HIV, disclosure of HIV status to the child and reasons for non-disclosure were ascertained. The association between sociodemographics, caregiving, family HIV history and other characteristics and non-disclosure of HIV status to the child was determined using univariate and multivariate logistic regression. We recruited 385 participants, median age = 11 years (IQR: 9-13); 52% were female. Disclosure had occurred in 79% of children aged 11-15 years and 19% of children aged 6-10 years. Age under 11 years (adjusted OR [aOR] = 18.89, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 10.64-33.55; p < 0.001), being male [aOR]= 2.56, 95% CI = 1.49-4.54; p = 0.001, being unaware of the parents' HIV status [aOR]= 32.42, 95% CI = 13.19-79.71; p < 0.001, and being newly diagnosed [aOR]= 2.52, 95% CI = 1.29-4.91; p = 0.007, were independently associated with non-disclosure. Disclosure outside of the family occurred infrequently and included friends of family (7%), school teacher (8%), school headmaster (4%) and church pastor (6%). High non-disclosure rates were present as well as a lack of discussion about HIV within the family. Disclosure outside of family was low reflecting difficulty in caregivers' ability to discuss HIV with their child or surrounding community. HIV programmes need to support families in the disclosure process.

Community burden of undiagnosed HIV infection among adolescents in Zimbabwe following primary healthcare-based provider-initiated HIV testing and counselling: A cross-sectional survey.

BACKGROUND: Children living with HIV who are not diagnosed in infancy often remain undiagnosed until they present with advanced disease. Provider-initiated testing and counselling (PITC) in health facilities is recommended for high-HIV-prevalence settings, but it is unclear whether this approach is sufficient to achieve universal coverage of HIV testing. We aimed to investigate the change in community burden of undiagnosed HIV infection among older children and adolescents following implementation of PITC in Harare, Zimbabwe. METHODS AND FINDINGS: Over the course of 2 years (January 2013-January 2015), 7 primary health clinics (PHCs) in southwestern Harare implemented optimised, opt-out PITC for all attendees aged 6-15 years. In February 2015-December 2015, we conducted a representative cross-sectional survey of 8-17-year-olds living in the 7 communities served by the study PHCs, who would have had 2 years of exposure to PITC. Knowledge of HIV status was ascertained through a caregiver questionnaire, and anonymised HIV testing was carried out using oral mucosal transudate (OMT) tests. After 1 participant taking antiretroviral therapy was observed to have a false negative OMT result, from July 2015 urine samples were obtained from all participants providing OMTs and tested for antiretroviral drugs to confirm HIV status. Children who tested positive through PITC were identified from among survey participants using gender, birthdate, and location. Of 7,146 children in 4,251 eligible households, 5,486 (76.8%) children in 3,397 households agreed to participate in the survey, and 141 were HIV positive. HIV prevalence was 2.6% (95% CI 2.2%-3.1%), and over a third of participants with HIV were undiagnosed (37.7%; 95% CI 29.8%-46.2%). Similarly, among the subsample of 2,643 (48.2%) participants with a urine test result, 34.7% of those living with HIV were undiagnosed (95% CI 23.5%-47.9%). Based on extrapolation from the survey sample to the community, we estimated that PITC over 2 years identified between 18% and 42% of previously undiagnosed children in the community. The main limitation is that prevalence of undiagnosed HIV was defined using a combination of 3 measures (OMT, self-report, and urine test), none of which were perfect. CONCLUSIONS: Facility-based approaches are inadequate in achieving universal coverage of HIV testing among older children and adolescents. Alternative, community-based approaches are required to meet the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) target of diagnosing 90% of those living with HIV by 2020 in this age group.

The impact of HIV on children's education in eastern Zimbabwe.

Little is known about how HIV impacts directly and indirectly on receiving, or particularly succeeding in, education in sub-Saharan Africa. To address this gap, we used multivariable logistic regression to determine the correlation between education outcomes in youth (aged 15-24) (being in the correct grade-for-age, primary school completion and having at least five "O" level passes) and being HIV-positive; having an HIV-positive parent; being a young carer; or being a maternal, paternal or double orphan, in five rounds (1998-2011) of a general population survey from eastern Zimbabwe. The fifth survey round (2009-2011) included data on children aged 6-17, which were analysed for the impacts of the above risk factors on regular attendance in primary and secondary schools and being in the correct grade-for-age. For data pooled over all rounds, being HIV-positive had no association with primary school completion, "O" level passes, or being in the correct grade-for-age in adolescents aged 16-17 years. Additionally, HIV status had no significant association with any education outcomes in children aged 6-17 surveyed in 2009-2011. In 2009-2011, being a young carer was associated with lower attendance in secondary school (69% vs. 85%, AOR: 0.44; p=0.02), whilst being a maternal (75% vs. 83%, AOR: 0.67; p<0.01), paternal (76% vs. 83%, AOR: 0.67; p=0.02) or double (75% vs. 83%, AOR: 0.68; p=0.02) orphan was associated with decreased odds of being in the correct grade-for-age. All forms of orphanhood also significantly decreased the odds of primary school completion in youths surveyed from 1998 to 2011 (all p<0.01). We found no evidence that HIV status affects education but further evidence that orphans do experience worse education outcomes than other children. Combination approaches that provide incentives for children to attend school and equip schools with tools to support vulnerable children may be most effective in improving education outcomes and should be developed and evaluated.

Malaria Transmission at The Zimbabwe-Mozambique Border: An Observational Study of Parasitemia by Travel History and Household Location.

Cross-border human population movement contributes to malaria transmission in border regions, impeding national elimination. However, its impact in low-to-moderate transmission settings is not well characterized. This community-based study in Mutasa District, Zimbabwe, estimated the association of parasite prevalence with self-reported overnight travel to Mozambique and household distance to the border from 2012-2020. A fully adjusted Poisson regression model with robust variance estimation was fit using active surveillance data. The population attributable fraction of parasite prevalence from overnight travel was also estimated. The relative risk of testing positive for malaria by rapid diagnostic test declined 14% (prevalence ratio [PR] = 0.86, 95% CI = 0.81-0.92) per kilometer from the border up to 12 km away. Travel to Mozambique was associated with a 157% increased risk (PR = 2.57, 95% CI = 1.38-4.78), although only 5.8% of cases were attributable to overnight travel (95% CI = -1.1% to 12.7%), reflecting infrequent overnight trips (1.3% of visits). This study suggests that transmission in eastern Zimbabwe is driven by increasingly conducive social or environmental conditions approaching the border and low levels of importation from overnight travel. Although day trips to Mozambique during peak biting hours were not assessed, the contribution of such trips to ongoing transmission may be significant. Future malaria control efforts should prioritize high coverage of existing interventions and continued support for community health workers and health facilities at the border, which provide free case management.

Cardiac disease in adolescents with delayed diagnosis of vertically acquired HIV infection.

BACKGROUND: At least one-third of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected infants survive to adolescence even without antiretroviral therapy (ART), but are at high risk of complications including cardiac disease. We investigated the characteristics of cardiac disease among adolescents with HIV infection diagnosed in late childhood who were receiving ambulatory HIV care in Harare, Zimbabwe. METHODS: Consecutive adolescents with vertically acquired HIV attending 2 HIV outpatient treatment clinics were studied. Assessment included clinical history and examination, and 2-dimensional, M-mode, pulsed- and continuous-wave Doppler echocardiography. RESULTS: Of 110 participants (47% male; median age, 15 years; interquartile range, 12-17 years), 78 (71%) were taking ART. Exertional dyspnea, chest pain, palpitations, and ankle swelling were reported by 47 (43%), 43 (39%), 10 (9%), and 7 (6%), respectively. The New York Heart Association score was ≥ 2 in 41 participants (37%). Echocardiography showed that 74 participants (67%) had left ventricular (LV; septal and/or free wall) hypertrophy and 27 (24%) had evidence of impaired LV relaxation or restrictive LV physiology. The estimated pulmonary artery systolic pressure (ePASP) was >30 mm Hg in 4 participants (3.6%); of these 2 also had right ventricular (RV) dilatation. Another 32 participants (29%), without elevated ePASP, had isolated RV dilatation. CONCLUSIONS: A significant burden of cardiac disease was seen among adolescents with vertically acquired HIV infection. More than half were asymptomatic yet had significant echocardiographic abnormalities. These findings highlight the need to screen this population in order to better define the geography, natural history, etiopathogenic mechanisms, and management (including the timing and choice of optimal therapeutic ART and cardiac drug interventions) to prevent development and/or progression of HIV-associated cardiac disease.

Burden of HIV among primary school children and feasibility of primary school-linked HIV testing in Harare, Zimbabwe: a mixed methods study.

Population-based surveys in Southern Africa suggest a substantial burden of undiagnosed HIV-infected long-term survivors of mother-to-child transmission. We conducted an HIV prevalence survey of primary school pupils in Harare, Zimbabwe, and evaluated school-linked HIV counselling and testing (HCT) for pupils, their families and schoolteachers. Population-weighted cluster sampling was used to select six primary schools. Randomly selected class-grade pupils underwent anonymous HIV testing, with concurrent school-linked family HCT offered during the survey. Focus group discussions and interviews were conducted with pupils, parents/guardians, counsellors, and schoolteachers. About 4386 (73%) pupils provided specimens for anonymous HIV testing. Median age was 9 years (IQR 8-11), and 54% were female. HIV prevalence was 2.7% (95% CI: 2.2-3.1) with no difference by gender. HIV infection was significantly associated with orphanhood, stunting, wasting, and being one or more class grades behind in school due to illness (p<0.001). After adjusting for covariates, orphanhood and stunting remained significantly associated with being HIV positive (p<0.001). Uptake of diagnostic HIV testing by pupils was low with only 47/4386 (1%) pupils undergoing HCT. The HIV prevalence among children under 15 years who underwent HIV testing was 6.8%. The main barrier to HIV testing was parents' fear of their children experiencing stigma and of unmasking their own HIV status should the child test HIV positive. Most guardians believed that a child's HIV-positive result should not be disclosed and the child could take HIV treatment without knowing the reason. Increased recognition of the high burden of undiagnosed HIV infection in children is needed. Despite awareness of the benefits of HIV testing, HIV-related stigma still dominates parents/guardians' psychological landscape. There is need for comprehensive information and support for families to engage with HIV testing services.

Social acceptability and perceived impact of a community-led cash transfer programme in Zimbabwe.

BACKGROUND: Cash transfer programmes are increasingly recognised as promising and scalable interventions that can promote the health and development of children. However, concerns have been raised about the potential for cash transfers to contribute to social division, jealousy and conflict at a community level. Against this background, and in our interest to promote community participation in cash transfer programmes, we examine local perceptions of a community-led cash transfer programme in Eastern Zimbabwe. METHODS: We collected and analysed data from 35 individual interviews and three focus group discussions, involving 24 key informants (community committee members and programme implementers), 24 cash transfer beneficiaries, of which four were youth, and 14 non-beneficiaries. Transcripts were subjected to thematic analysis and coding to generate concepts. RESULTS: Study participants described the programme as participatory, fair and transparent - reducing the likelihood of jealousy. The programme was perceived to have had a substantial impact on children's health and education, primarily through aiding parents and guardians to better cater for their children's needs. Moreover, participants alluded to the potential of the programme to facilitate more transformational change, for example by enabling families to invest money in assets and income generating activities and by promoting a community-wide sense of responsibility for the support of orphaned and vulnerable children. CONCLUSION: Community participation, combined with the perceived impact of the cash transfer programme, led community members to speak enthusiastically about the programme. We conclude that community-led cash transfer programmes have the potential to open up for possibilities of participation and community agency that enable social acceptability and limit social divisiveness.

The human resource implications of improving financial risk protection for mothers and newborns in Zimbabwe.

BACKGROUND: A paradigm shift in global health policy on user fees has been evident in the last decade with a growing consensus that user fees undermine equitable access to essential health care in many low and middle income countries. Changes to fees have major implications for human resources for health (HRH), though the linkages are rarely explicitly examined. This study aimed to examine the inter-linkages in Zimbabwe in order to generate lessons for HRH and fee policies, with particular respect to reproductive, maternal and newborn health (RMNH). METHODS: The study used secondary data and small-scale qualitative fieldwork (key informant interview and focus group discussions) at national level and in one district in 2011. RESULTS: The past decades have seen a shift in the burden of payments onto households. Implementation of the complex rules on exemptions is patchy and confused. RMNH services are seen as hard for families to afford, even in the absence of complications. Human resources are constrained in managing current demand and any growth in demand by high external and internal migration, and low remuneration, amongst other factors. We find that nurses and midwives are evenly distributed across the country (at least in the public sector), though doctors are not. This means that for four provinces, there are not enough doctors to provide more complex care, and only three provinces could provide cover in the event of all deliveries taking place in facilities. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis suggests that there is a strong case for reducing the financial burden on clients of RMNH services and also a pressing need to improve the terms and conditions of key health staff. Numbers need to grow, and distribution is also a challenge, suggesting the need for differentiated policies in relation to rural areas, especially for doctors and specialists. The management of user fees should also be reviewed, particularly for non-Ministry facilities, which do not retain their revenues, and receive limited investment in return from the municipalities and district councils. Overall public investment in health needs to grow.

A Scoping Review of Gut Microbiome and Bifidobacterium Research in Zimbabwe: Implications for Future Studies.

Background: Gut microbiota play a key role in host health, with certain Bifidobacterium strains critical for immune development. The healthy gut of breastfed infants is dominated by these pioneer microbes, especially the strains that feed on human milk oligosaccharides. Objective: This is a scoping review of gut microbiome research from Zimbabwe. It focuses on distribution and dynamic changes of bifidobacteria, and milk components that promote growth of microbes in infants, together with the distribution of associated gut microbes in adults. Design: Online databases were searched for publications from 2000 to 2023. Results and Analysis: Fourteen publications on microbiota of infants and adults were included in this scoping review. Most were cross-sectional, while three were clinical trials/cohort protocols. Publications focused on pediatrics (78.5%), pregnant women (14.3%), and men (7.2%). Zimbabwe has a high burden of HIV; hence 35.7% of study populations were delineated by HIV status. The laboratory methods used included shotgun metagenomics (62%) or 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. Almost 85% of the studies focused on total microbiome profiles and rarely reported the distribution of different Bifidobacterium species and variants. None of the papers studied human breast milk composition. There were reports of reduced abundance of beneficial genera in pregnant women, children, and adolescents living with HIV. Additionally, gut microbiota was reported to be poorly predictive of child growth and vaccine response, though this was not conclusive. Conclusion: There are few studies that characterize the gut microbiome by Zimbabwe-based researchers. However, studies on strain level diversity of Bifidobacterium and other key microbes, and their role in health during and beyond infancy, lag behind in Zimbabwe and other low- and middle-income countries. Such cohorts are needed to inform future mechanistic studies and downstream translational work such as next-generation probiotics and prebiotics.

On Campus HIV Self-Testing Distribution at Tertiary Level Colleges in Zimbabwe Increases Access to HIV Testing for Youth.

PURPOSE: HIV self-testing allows youth to access testing outside of healthcare facilities. We investigated the feasibility of peer distribution of HIV self-testing (HIVST) kits to youth aged 16-24 years and examined the factors associated with testing off-site rather than at distribution points. METHODS: From July 2019 to March 2020, HIVST kits were distributed on 12 tertiary education campuses throughout Zimbabwe. Participants chose to test at the HIVST distribution point or off-site. Factors associated with choosing to test off-site and factors associated with reporting a self-test result for those who tested off-site were investigated using logistic regression. RESULTS: In total, 5,351 participants received an HIVST kit, over 129 days, of whom 3,319 (62%) tested off-site. The median age of recipients was 21 years (interquartile range 20-23); 64% were female. Overall, 2,933 (55%) returned results, 23 (1%) of which were reactive. Being female (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1.16, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.03-1.31), living on campus (aOR 1.24, 95% CI 1.09-1.40), used a condom at last sex (aOR 1.44, 95% CI 1.26-1.65), and previous knowledge of HIVST (aOR 1.22, 95% CI 1.09-1.37) were associated with off-site testing. Attending a vocational college and teachers training college compared to a university was associated with choosing to return results for those who tested off-site (OR 2.40, 95% CI 1.65-3.48, p < .001). DISCUSSION: HIVST distribution is an effective method of reaching a large number of youth over a short period of time. Efforts to increase awareness and roll out of HIVST on campuses should be coupled with support for linkage to HIV prevention and treatment services.

Clinic-based SAMBA-II vs centralized laboratory viral load assays among HIV-1 infected children, adolescents and young adults in rural Zimbabwe: A randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: In Zimbabwe, children, adolescents and young adults living with HIV (CALWH) who are on public health antiretroviral therapy (ART) have inadequate viral load (VL) suppression. We assessed whether a clinic-based VL monitoring could decrease 12-month virologic failure rates among these CALWH. METHODS: The study was registered on ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT03986099. CALWH in care at Chidamoyo Christian Hospital (CCH) and 8 rural outreach sites (ROS) on long-term community-based ART were randomized (1:1) to 6 monthly VL monitoring by COBAS®Ampliprep®/Taqman48® HIV-1 at the provincial referral laboratory (PRL) as per standard of care (SOC) or by the clinic-based SAMBA II assay, Diagnostics for the Real World, at CCH. VL suppression, turn-around-time (TAT) for VL results, drug switching and drug resistance in second-line failure were assessed at 12 months. RESULTS: Of 390 CALWH enrolled 347 (89%) completed 12 months follow-up. Median (IQR) age and ART duration were 14.1 (9.7-18.2) and 6.4 (3.7-7.9) years, respectively. Over half (57%) of the participants were female. At enrolment, 78 (20%) had VL ≥1,000 copies/ml and VL suppression of 80% was unchanged after 12 months, with no significant difference between the SOC (81%) and the clinic-based (80%) arms (p = 0.528). Median (IQR) months to confirmatory VL result at CCH vs PRL was 4.0 (2.1-4.4) vs 4.5 (3.5-6.3) respectively; p = 0.027 at 12 months. Drug switching was documented among 26/347 (7%) participants with no difference between the median (IQR) time to switch in SOC vs clinic-based arms (5.1 (3.9-10.0) months vs 4.4 (2.5-8.4) respectively; p = 0.569). Out of 24 confirmed second-line failures, only 4/19 (21%) had protease inhibitor resistance. CONCLUSION: In rural Zimbabwe, the clinic-based SAMBA II assay was able to provide confirmatory VL results faster than the SOC VL assay at the PRL. However, this rapid TAT did not allow for a more efficient drug switch among these CALWH.