Total insulin and IGF-I resistance in pancreatic beta cells causes overt diabetes.

An appropriate beta cell mass is pivotal for the maintenance of glucose homeostasis. Both insulin and IGF-1 are important in regulation of beta cell growth and function (reviewed in ref. 2). To define the roles of these hormones directly, we created a mouse model lacking functional receptors for both insulin and IGF-1 only in beta cells (betaDKO), as the hormones have overlapping mechanisms of action and activate common downstream proteins. Notably, betaDKO mice were born with a normal complement of islet cells, but 3 weeks after birth, they developed diabetes, in contrast to mild phenotypes observed in single mutants. Normoglycemic 2-week-old betaDKO mice manifest reduced beta cell mass, reduced expression of phosphorylated Akt and the transcription factor MafA, increased apoptosis in islets and severely compromised beta cell function. Analyses of compound knockouts showed a dominant role for insulin signaling in regulating beta cell mass. Together, these data provide compelling genetic evidence that insulin and IGF-I-dependent pathways are not critical for development of beta cells but that a loss of action of these hormones in beta cells leads to diabetes. We propose that therapeutic improvement of insulin and IGF-I signaling in beta cells might protect against type 2 diabetes.

Melanin concentrating hormone is a novel regulator of islet function and growth.

Melanin concentrating hormone (MCH) is a hypothalamic neuropeptide known to play a critical role in energy balance. We have previously reported that overexpression of MCH is associated with mild obesity. In addition, mice have substantial hyperinsulinemia and islet hyperplasia that is out of proportion with their degree of obesity. In this study, we further explored the role of MCH in the endocrine pancreas. Both MCH and MCHR1 are expressed in mouse and human islets and in clonal beta-cell lines as assessed using quantitative real-time PCR and immunohistochemistry. Mice lacking MCH (MCH-KO) on either a C57Bl/6 or 129Sv genetic background showed a significant reduction in beta-cell mass and complemented our earlier observation of increased beta-cell mass in MCH-overexpressing mice. Furthermore, the compensatory islet hyperplasia secondary to a high-fat diet, which was evident in wild-type controls, was attenuated in MCH-KO. Interestingly, MCH enhanced insulin secretion in human and mouse islets and rodent beta-cell lines in a dose-dependent manner. Real-time PCR analyses of islet RNA derived from MCH-KO revealed altered expression of islet-enriched genes such as glucagon, forkhead homeobox A2, hepatocyte nuclear factor (HNF)4alpha, and HNF1alpha. Together, these data provide novel evidence for an autocrine role for MCH in the regulation of beta-cell mass dynamics and in islet secretory function and suggest that MCH is part of a hypothalamic-islet (pancreatic) axis.

Targeted elimination of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma in beta cells leads to abnormalities in islet mass without compromising glucose homeostasis.

The nuclear hormone receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR gamma) is an important regulator of lipid and glucose homeostasis and cellular differentiation. Studies of many cell types in vitro and in vivo have demonstrated that activation of PPAR gamma can reduce cellular proliferation. We show here that activation of PPAR gamma is sufficient to reduce the proliferation of cultured insulinoma cell lines. We created a model with mice in which the expression of the PPARG gene in beta cells was eliminated (beta gamma KO mice), and these mice were found to have significant islet hyperplasia on a chow diet. Interestingly, the normal expansion of beta-cell mass that occurs in control mice in response to high-fat feeding is markedly blunted in these animals. Despite this alteration in beta-cell mass, no effect on glucose homeostasis in beta gamma KO mice was noted. Additionally, while thiazolidinediones enhanced insulin secretion from cultured wild-type islets, administration of rosiglitazone to insulin-resistant control and beta gamma KO mice revealed that PPAR gamma in beta cells is not required for the antidiabetic actions of these compounds. These data demonstrate a critical physiological role for PPAR gamma function in beta-cell proliferation and also indicate that the mechanisms controlling beta-cell hyperplasia in obesity are different from those that regulate baseline cell mass in the islet.

Impact of genetic background on development of hyperinsulinemia and diabetes in insulin receptor/insulin receptor substrate-1 double heterozygous mice.

Type 2 diabetes is a complex disease in which genetic and environmental factors interact to produce alterations in insulin action and insulin secretion, leading to hyperglycemia. To evaluate the influence of genetic background on development of diabetes in a genetically susceptible host, we generated mice that are double heterozygous (DH) for knockout of the insulin receptor and insulin receptor substrate-1 on three genetic backgrounds (C57BL/6 [B6], 129Sv, and DBA). Although DH mice on all backgrounds showed insulin resistance, their phenotypes were dramatically different. B6 DH mice exhibited marked hyperinsulinemia and massive islet hyperplasia and developed early hyperglycemia, with 85% overtly diabetic by 6 months. By contrast, 129Sv DH mice showed mild hyperinsulinemia and minimal islet hyperplasia, and < 2% developed diabetes. DBA mice had slower development of hyperglycemia, intermediate insulin levels, and evidence of islet degeneration, with 64% developing diabetes. Thus, mice carrying the same genetic defects on different backgrounds exhibited the full spectrum of abnormalities observed in humans with type 2 diabetes, which allowed for identification of potential loci that promote development of the diabetic phenotype.

Genome-wide search for type 2 diabetes in Japanese affected sib-pairs confirms susceptibility genes on 3q, 15q, and 20q and identifies two new candidate Loci on 7p and 11p.

The genetic background that predisposes the Japanese population to type 2 diabetes is largely unknown. Therefore, we conducted a 10-cM genome-wide scan for type 2 diabetes traits in the 359 affected individuals from 159 families, yielding 224 affected sib-pairs of Japanese origin. Nonparametric multipoint linkage analyses performed in the whole population showed one suggestive linked region on 11p13-p12 (maximum logarithm of odds score [MLS] 3.08, near Pax6) and seven potentially linked regions (MLS >1.17) at 1p36-p32, 2q34, 3q26-q28, 6p23, 7p22-p21, 15q13-q21, and 20q12-q13 (near the gene for hepatocyte nuclear factor-4alpha [HNF-4alpha]). Subset analyses according to maximal BMI and early age at diagnosis added suggestive evidence of linkage with type 2 diabetes at 7p22-p21 (MLS 3.51), 15q13-q21 (MLS 3.91), and 20q12-q13 (MLS 2.32). These results support previous indication for linkage found on chromosome 3q, 15q, and 20q in other populations and identifies two new potential loci on 7p and 11p that may confer genetic risk for type 2 diabetes in the Japanese population.

Genetic variation in the gene encoding adiponectin is associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes in the Japanese population.

An adipocyte-derived peptide, adiponectin (also known as GBP28), is decreased in subjects with type 2 diabetes. Recent genome-wide scans have mapped a diabetes susceptibility locus to chromosome 3q27, where the adiponectin gene (APM1) is located. Herein, we present evidence of an association between frequent single nucleotide polymorphisms at positions 45 and 276 in the adiponectin gene and type 2 diabetes (P = 0.003 and P = 0.002, respectively). Subjects with the G/G genotype at position 45 or the G/G genotype at position 276 had a significantly increased risk of type 2 diabetes (odds ratio 1.70 [95% CI 1.09-2.65] and 2.16 [1.22-3.95], respectively) compared with those having the T/T genotype at positions 45 and 276, respectively. In addition, the subjects with the G/G genotype at position 276 had a higher insulin resistance index than those with the T/T genotype (1.61 +/- 0.05 vs. 1.19 +/- 0.12, P = 0.001). The G allele at position 276 was linearly associated with lower plasma adiponectin levels (G/G: 10.4 +/- 0.85 microg/ml, G/T: 13.7 +/- 0.87 microg/ml, T/T: 16.6 +/- 2.24 microg/ml, P = 0.01) in subjects with higher BMIs. Based on these findings together with the observation that adiponectin improves insulin sensitivity in animal models, we conclude that the adiponectin gene may be a susceptibility gene for type 2 diabetes.

Altered insulin receptor signalling and ß-cell cycle dynamics in type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Insulin resistance, reduced ß-cell mass, and hyperglucagonemia are consistent features in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). We used pancreas and islets from humans with T2DM to examine the regulation of insulin signaling and cell-cycle control of islet cells. We observed reduced ß-cell mass and increased α-cell mass in the Type 2 diabetic pancreas. Confocal microscopy, real-time PCR and western blotting analyses revealed increased expression of PCNA and down-regulation of p27-Kip1 and altered expression of insulin receptors, insulin receptor substrate-2 and phosphorylated BAD. To investigate the mechanisms underlying these findings, we examined a mouse model of insulin resistance in ß-cells--which also exhibits reduced ß-cell mass, the ß-cell-specific insulin receptor knockout (ßIRKO). Freshly isolated islets and ß-cell lines derived from ßIRKO mice exhibited poor cell-cycle progression, nuclear restriction of FoxO1 and reduced expression of cell-cycle proteins favoring growth arrest. Re-expression of insulin receptors in ßIRKO ß-cells reversed the defects and promoted cell cycle progression and proliferation implying a role for insulin-signaling in ß-cell growth. These data provide evidence that human ß- and α-cells can enter the cell-cycle, but proliferation of ß-cells in T2DM fails due to G1-to-S phase arrest secondary to defective insulin signaling. Activation of insulin signaling, FoxO1 and proteins in ß-cell-cycle progression are attractive therapeutic targets to enhance ß-cell regeneration in the treatment of T2DM.

Hypoxia-inducible factor-1alpha regulates beta cell function in mouse and human islets.

Hypoxia-inducible factor-1alpha (HIF-1alpha) is a transcription factor that regulates cellular stress responses. While the levels of HIF-1alpha protein are tightly regulated, recent studies suggest that it can be active under normoxic conditions. We hypothesized that HIF-1alpha is required for normal beta cell function and reserve and that dysregulation may contribute to the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes (T2D). Here we show that HIF-1alpha protein is present at low levels in mouse and human normoxic beta cells and islets. Decreased levels of HIF-1alpha impaired glucose-stimulated ATP generation and beta cell function. C57BL/6 mice with beta cell-specific Hif1a disruption (referred to herein as beta-Hif1a-null mice) exhibited glucose intolerance, beta cell dysfunction, and developed severe glucose intolerance on a high-fat diet. Increasing HIF-1alpha levels by inhibiting its degradation through iron chelation markedly improved insulin secretion and glucose tolerance in control mice fed a high-fat diet but not in beta-Hif1a-null mice. Increasing HIF-1alpha levels markedly increased expression of ARNT and other genes in human T2D islets and improved their function. Further analysis indicated that HIF-1alpha was bound to the Arnt promoter in a mouse beta cell line, suggesting direct regulation. Taken together, these findings suggest an important role for HIF-1alpha in beta cell reserve and regulation of ARNT expression and demonstrate that HIF-1alpha is a potential therapeutic target for the beta cell dysfunction of T2D.

Insulin signaling regulates mitochondrial function in pancreatic beta-cells.

Insulin/IGF-I signaling regulates the metabolism of most mammalian tissues including pancreatic islets. To dissect the mechanisms linking insulin signaling with mitochondrial function, we first identified a mitochondria-tethering complex in beta-cells that included glucokinase (GK), and the pro-apoptotic protein, BAD(S). Mitochondria isolated from beta-cells derived from beta-cell specific insulin receptor knockout (betaIRKO) mice exhibited reduced BAD(S), GK and protein kinase A in the complex, and attenuated function. Similar alterations were evident in islets from patients with type 2 diabetes. Decreased mitochondrial GK activity in betaIRKOs could be explained, in part, by reduced expression and altered phosphorylation of BAD(S). The elevated phosphorylation of p70S6K and JNK1 was likely due to compensatory increase in IGF-1 receptor expression. Re-expression of insulin receptors in betaIRKO cells partially restored the stoichiometry of the complex and mitochondrial function. These data indicate that insulin signaling regulates mitochondrial function and have implications for beta-cell dysfunction in type 2 diabetes.

Insulin receptors in beta-cells are critical for islet compensatory growth response to insulin resistance.

Insulin and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) are ubiquitous growth factors that regulate proliferation in most mammalian tissues including pancreatic islets. To explore the specificity of insulin receptors in compensatory beta-cell growth, we examined two models of insulin resistance. In the first model, we used liver-specific insulin receptor knockout (LIRKO) mice, which exhibit hyperinsulinemia without developing diabetes due to a compensatory increase in beta-cell mass. LIRKO mice, also lacking functional insulin receptors in beta-cells (beta IRKO/LIRKO), exhibited severe glucose intolerance but failed to develop compensatory islet hyperplasia, together leading to early death. In the second model, we examined the relative significance of insulin versus IGF1 receptors in islet growth by feeding high-fat diets to beta IRKO and beta-cell-specific IGF1 receptor knockout (beta IGFRKO) mice. Although both groups on the high-fat diet developed insulin resistance, beta IRKO, but not beta IGFRKO, mice exhibited poor islet growth consistent with insulin-stimulated phosphorylation, nuclear exclusion of FoxO1, and reduced expression of Pdx-1. Together these data provide direct genetic evidence that insulin/FoxO1/Pdx-1 signaling is one pathway that is crucial for islet compensatory growth response to insulin resistance.

Alterations in growth and apoptosis of insulin receptor substrate-1-deficient beta-cells.

Insulin and IGF-I activate antiapoptotic pathways via insulin receptor substrate (IRS) proteins in most mammalian cells, including beta-cells. IRS-1 knockout (IRS-1KO) mice show growth retardation, hyperinsulinemia, and hyperplastic but dysfunctional islets without developing overt diabetes, whereas IRS-2KOs develop insulin resistance and islet hypoplasia leading to diabetes. Because both models display insulin resistance, it is difficult to differentiate islet response to insulin resistance from islet defects due to loss of proteins in the islets themselves. We used a transplantation approach, as a means of separating host insulin resistance from islet function, to examine alterations in proteins in insulin/IGF-I signaling pathways that may contribute to beta-cell proliferation and/or apoptosis in IRS-1KO islets. Islets isolated from wild-type (WT) or IRS-1KO mice were transplanted into WT or insulin-resistant IRS-1KO males under the kidney capsule. The beta-cell mitotic rate in transplanted islets in IRS-1KO recipients was increased 1.5-fold compared with WT recipients and was similar to that in endogenous pancreases of IRS-1KOs, whereas beta-cell apoptosis was reduced by approximately 80% in IRS-1KO grafts in IRS-1KO recipients compared with WT recipients. Immunohistochemistry showed a substantial increase in IRS-2 expression in IRS-1KO islets transplanted into IRS-1KO mice as well as in endogenous islets from IRS-1KOs. Furthermore, enhanced cytosolic forkhead transcription factor (FoxO1) staining in IRS-1KO grafts suggests intact Akt/PKB activity. Together, these data indicate that, even in the absence of insulin resistance, beta-cells deficient in IRS-1 exhibit a compensatory increase in IRS-2, which is associated with islet growth and is characterized by both proliferative and antiapoptotic effects that likely occur via an insulin/IGF-I/IRS-2 pathway.

Loss of ARNT/HIF1beta mediates altered gene expression and pancreatic-islet dysfunction in human type 2 diabetes.

beta cell dysfunction is a central component of the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes. Using oligonucleotide microarrays and real-time PCR of pancreatic islets isolated from humans with type 2 diabetes versus normal glucose-tolerant controls, we identified multiple changes in expression of genes known to be important in beta cell function, including major decreases in expression of HNF4alpha, insulin receptor, IRS2, Akt2, and several glucose-metabolic-pathway genes. There was also a 90% decrease in expression of the transcription factor ARNT. Reducing ARNT levels in Min6 cells with small interfering RNA (siRNA) resulted in markedly impaired glucose-stimulated insulin release and changes in gene expression similar to those in human type 2 islets. Likewise, beta cell-specific ARNT knockout mice exhibited abnormal glucose tolerance, impaired insulin secretion, and changes in islet gene expression that mimicked those in human diabetic islets. Together, these data suggest an important role for decreased ARNT and altered gene expression in the impaired islet function of human type 2 diabetes.

Tissue-specific targeting of the insulin receptor gene.

The techniques to study the mechanisms that underlie the pathogenesis of disease processes have been revolutionized by the development of methods that allow spatiotemporal control of gene deletion or gene expression in transgenic and knockout animals. The ability to interfere with the function of a single protein in a specific tissue allows unprecedented flexibility for exploring gene function in both health and disease. The present review will summarize some of the different knockouts and transgenics generated recently to study type 2 diabetes and critically evaluate the techniques used to examine the function of the insulin receptor in two nonclassical insulin target tissues--the pancreatic islet and the central nervous system.