Clinical presentation of new onset refractory status epilepticus in children (the pSERG cohort).

OBJECTIVE: We aimed to characterize the clinical profile and outcomes of new onset refractory status epilepticus (NORSE) in children, and investigated the relationship between fever onset and status epilepticus (SE). METHODS: Patients with refractory SE (RSE) between June 1, 2011 and October 1, 2016 were prospectively enrolled in the pSERG (Pediatric Status Epilepticus Research Group) cohort. Cases meeting the definition of NORSE were classified as "NORSE of known etiology" or "NORSE of unknown etiology." Subgroup analysis of NORSE of unknown etiology was completed based on the presence and time of fever occurrence relative to RSE onset: fever at onset (≤24 h), previous fever (2 weeks-24 h), and without fever. RESULTS: Of 279 patients with RSE, 46 patients met the criteria for NORSE. The median age was 2.4 years, and 25 (54%) were female. Forty (87%) patients had NORSE of unknown etiology. Nineteen (48%) presented with fever at SE onset, 16 (40%) had a previous fever, and five (12%) had no fever. The patients with preceding fever had more prolonged SE and worse outcomes, and 25% recovered baseline neurological function. The patients with fever at onset were younger and had shorter SE episodes, and 89% recovered baseline function. SIGNIFICANCE: Among pediatric patients with RSE, 16% met diagnostic criteria for NORSE, including the subcategory of febrile infection-related epilepsy syndrome (FIRES). Pediatric NORSE cases may also overlap with refractory febrile SE (FSE). FIRES occurs more frequently in older children, the course is usually prolonged, and outcomes are worse, as compared to refractory FSE. Fever occurring more than 24 h before the onset of seizures differentiates a subgroup of NORSE patients with distinctive clinical characteristics and worse outcomes.

Factors associated with long-term outcomes in pediatric refractory status epilepticus.

OBJECTIVE: This study was undertaken to describe long-term clinical and developmental outcomes in pediatric refractory status epilepticus (RSE) and identify factors associated with new neurological deficits after RSE. METHODS: We performed retrospective analyses of prospectively collected observational data from June 2011 to March 2020 on pediatric patients with RSE. We analyzed clinical outcomes from at least 30 days after RSE and, in a subanalysis, we assessed developmental outcomes and evaluated risk factors in previously normally developed patients. RESULTS: Follow-up data on outcomes were available in 276 patients (56.5% males). The median (interquartile range [IQR]) follow-up duration was 1.6 (.9-2.7) years. The in-hospital mortality rate was 4% (16/403 patients), and 15 (5.4%) patients had died after hospital discharge. One hundred sixty-six (62.9%) patients had subsequent unprovoked seizures, and 44 (16.9%) patients had a repeated RSE episode. Among 116 patients with normal development before RSE, 42 of 107 (39.3%) patients with available data had new neurological deficits (cognitive, behavioral, or motor). Patients with new deficits had longer median (IQR) electroclinical RSE duration than patients without new deficits (10.3 [2.1-134.5] h vs. 4 [1.6-16] h, p = .011, adjusted odds ratio = 1.003, 95% confidence interval = 1.0008-1.0069, p = .027). The proportion of patients with an unfavorable functional outcome (Glasgow Outcome Scale-Extended score ≥ 4) was 22 of 90 (24.4%), and they were more likely to have received a continuous infusion. SIGNIFICANCE: About one third of patients without prior epilepsy developed recurrent unprovoked seizures after the RSE episode. In previously normally developing patients, 39% presented with new deficits during follow-up, with longer electroclinical RSE duration as a predictor.

Benzodiazepine administration patterns before escalation to second-line medications in pediatric refractory convulsive status epilepticus.

OBJECTIVE: This study was undertaken to evaluate benzodiazepine (BZD) administration patterns before transitioning to non-BZD antiseizure medication (ASM) in pediatric patients with refractory convulsive status epilepticus (rSE). METHODS: This retrospective multicenter study in the United States and Canada used prospectively collected observational data from children admitted with rSE between 2011 and 2020. Outcome variables were the number of BZDs given before the first non-BZD ASM, and the number of BZDs administered after 30 and 45 min from seizure onset and before escalating to non-BZD ASM. RESULTS: We included 293 patients with a median (interquartile range) age of 3.8 (1.3-9.3) years. Thirty-six percent received more than two BZDs before escalating, and the later the treatment initiation was after seizure onset, the less likely patients were to receive multiple BZD doses before transitioning (incidence rate ratio [IRR] = .998, 95% confidence interval [CI] = .997-.999 per minute, p = .01). Patients received BZDs beyond 30 and 45 min in 57.3% and 44.0% of cases, respectively. Patients with out-of-hospital seizure onset were more likely to receive more doses of BZDs beyond 30 min (IRR = 2.43, 95% CI = 1.73-3.46, p < .0001) and beyond 45 min (IRR = 3.75, 95% CI = 2.40-6.03, p < .0001) compared to patients with in-hospital seizure onset. Intermittent SE was a risk factor for more BZDs administered beyond 45 min compared to continuous SE (IRR = 1.44, 95% CI = 1.01-2.06, p = .04). Forty-seven percent of patients (n = 94) with out-of-hospital onset did not receive treatment before hospital arrival. Among patients with out-of-hospital onset who received at least two BZDs before hospital arrival (n = 54), 48.1% received additional BZDs at hospital arrival. SIGNIFICANCE: Failure to escalate from BZDs to non-BZD ASMs occurs mainly in out-of-hospital rSE onset. Delays in the implementation of medical guidelines may be reduced by initiating treatment before hospital arrival and facilitating a transition to non-BZD ASMs after two BZD doses during handoffs between prehospital and in-hospital settings.

Super-Refractory Status Epilepticus in Children: A Retrospective Cohort Study.

OBJECTIVES: To characterize the pediatric super-refractory status epilepticus population by describing treatment variability in super-refractory status epilepticus patients and comparing relevant clinical characteristics, including outcomes, between super-refractory status epilepticus, and nonsuper-refractory status epilepticus patients. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study with prospectively collected data between June 2011 and January 2019. SETTING: Seventeen academic hospitals in the United States. PATIENTS: We included patients 1 month to 21 years old presenting with convulsive refractory status epilepticus. We defined super-refractory status epilepticus as continuous or intermittent seizures lasting greater than or equal to 24 hours following initiation of continuous infusion and divided the cohort into super-refractory status epilepticus and nonsuper-refractory status epilepticus groups. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: We identified 281 patients (157 males) with a median age of 4.1 years (1.3-9.5 yr), including 31 super-refractory status epilepticus patients. Compared with nonsuper-refractory status epilepticus group, super-refractory status epilepticus patients had delayed initiation of first nonbenzodiazepine-antiseizure medication (149 min [55-491.5 min] vs 62 min [33.3-120.8 min]; p = 0.030) and of continuous infusion (495 min [177.5-1,255 min] vs 150 min [90-318.5 min]; p = 0.003); prolonged seizure duration (120 hr [58-368 hr] vs 3 hr [1.4-5.9 hr]; p < 0.001) and length of ICU stay (17 d [9.5-40 d] vs [1.8-8.8 d]; p < 0.001); more medical complications (18/31 [58.1%] vs 55/250 [22.2%] patients; p < 0.001); lower return to baseline function (7/31 [22.6%] vs 182/250 [73.4%] patients; p < 0.001); and higher mortality (4/31 [12.9%] vs 5/250 [2%]; p = 0.010). Within the super-refractory status epilepticus group, status epilepticus resolution was attained with a single continuous infusion in 15 of 31 patients (48.4%), two in 10 of 31 (32.3%), and three or more in six of 31 (19.4%). Most super-refractory status epilepticus patients (30/31, 96.8%) received midazolam as first choice. About 17 of 31 patients (54.8%) received additional treatments. CONCLUSIONS: Super-refractory status epilepticus patients had delayed initiation of nonbenzodiazepine antiseizure medication treatment, higher number of medical complications and mortality, and lower return to neurologic baseline than nonsuper-refractory status epilepticus patients, although these associations were not adjusted for potential confounders. Treatment approaches following the first continuous infusion were heterogeneous, reflecting limited information to guide clinical decision-making in super-refractory status epilepticus.

Effect of COVID-19 on Emergent Stroke Care: A Regional Experience.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Anecdotal evidence suggests that the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic mitigation efforts may inadvertently discourage patients from seeking treatment for stroke with resultant increased morbidity and mortality. Analysis of regional data, while hospital capacities for acute stroke care remained fully available, offers an opportunity to assess this. We report regional Stroke Team acute activations and reperfusion treatments during COVID-19 mitigation activities. METHODS: Using case log data prospectively collected by a Stroke Team exclusively serving ≈2 million inhabitants and 30 healthcare facilities, we retrospectively reviewed volumes of consultations and reperfusion treatments for acute ischemic stroke. We compared volumes before and after announcements of COVID-19 mitigation measures and the prior calendar year. RESULTS: Compared with the 10 weeks prior, stroke consultations declined by 39% (95% CI, 32%-46%) in the 5 weeks after announcement of statewide school and restaurant closures in Ohio, Kentucky, and Indiana. Results compared with the prior year and time trend analyses were consistent. Reperfusion treatments also appeared to decline by 31% (95% CI, 3%-51%), and specifically thrombolysis by 33% (95% CI, 4%-55%), but this finding had less precision. CONCLUSIONS: Upon the announcement of measures to mitigate COVID-19, regional acute stroke consultations declined significantly. Reperfusion treatment rates, particularly thrombolysis, also appeared to decline qualitatively, and this finding requires further study. Urgent public education is necessary to mitigate a possible crisis of avoiding essential emergency care due to COVID-19.

KCTD7 deficiency defines a distinct neurodegenerative disorder with a conserved autophagy-lysosome defect.

OBJECTIVE: Several small case series identified KCTD7 mutations in patients with a rare autosomal recessive disorder designated progressive myoclonic epilepsy (EPM3) and neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (CLN14). Despite the name KCTD (potassium channel tetramerization domain), KCTD protein family members lack predicted channel domains. We sought to translate insight gained from yeast studies to uncover disease mechanisms associated with deficiencies in KCTD7 of unknown function. METHODS: Novel KCTD7 variants in new and published patients were assessed for disease causality using genetic analyses, cell-based functional assays of patient fibroblasts and knockout yeast, and electron microscopy of patient samples. RESULTS: Patients with KCTD7 mutations can exhibit movement disorders or developmental regression before seizure onset, and are distinguished from similar disorders by an earlier age of onset. Although most published KCTD7 patient variants were excluded from a genome sequence database of normal human variations, most newly identified patient variants are present in this database, potentially challenging disease causality. However, genetic analysis and impaired biochemical interactions with cullin 3 support a causal role for patient KCTD7 variants, suggesting deleterious alleles of KCTD7 and other rare disease variants may be underestimated. Both patient-derived fibroblasts and yeast lacking Whi2 with sequence similarity to KCTD7 have impaired autophagy consistent with brain pathology. INTERPRETATION: Biallelic KCTD7 mutations define a neurodegenerative disorder with lipofuscin and lipid droplet accumulation but without defining features of neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis or lysosomal storage disorders. KCTD7 deficiency appears to cause an underlying autophagy-lysosome defect conserved in yeast, thereby assigning a biological role for KCTD7. Ann Neurol 2018;84:774-788.

MicroRNA-induced silencing in epilepsy: Opportunities and challenges for clinical application.

MicroRNAs are master regulators of gene expression. Single microRNAs influence multiple proteins within diverse molecular pathways and networks. Therefore, changes in levels or activity of microRNAs can have profound effects on cellular function. This makes dysregulated microRNA-induced silencing an attractive potential disease mechanism in complex disorders like epilepsy, where numerous cellular pathways and processes are affected simultaneously. Indeed, several years of research in rodent models have provided strong evidence that acute or recurrent seizures change microRNA expression and function. Moreover, altered microRNA expression has been observed in brain and blood from patients with various epilepsy disorders, such as tuberous sclerosis. MicroRNAs can be easily manipulated using sense or antisense oligonucleotides, opening up opportunities for therapeutic intervention. Here, we summarize studies using these techniques to identify microRNAs that modulate seizure susceptibility, describe protein targets mediating some of these effects, and discuss cellular pathways, for example neuroinflammation, that are controlled by epilepsy-associated microRNAs. We critically assess current gaps in knowledge regarding target- and cell-specificity of microRNAs that have to be addressed before clinical application as therapeutic targets or biomarkers. The recent progress in understanding microRNA function in epilepsy has generated strong momentum to encourage in-depth mechanistic studies to develop microRNA-targeted therapies. Developmental Dynamics 247:94-110, 2018. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Refractory Status Epilepticus in Children: Intention to Treat With Continuous Infusions of Midazolam and Pentobarbital.

OBJECTIVE: To describe pediatric patients with convulsive refractory status epilepticus in whom there is intention to use an IV anesthetic for seizure control. DESIGN: Two-year prospective observational study evaluating patients (age range, 1 mo to 21 yr) with refractory status epilepticus not responding to two antiepileptic drug classes and treated with continuous infusion of anesthetic agent. SETTING: Nine pediatric hospitals in the United States. PATIENTS: In a cohort of 111 patients with refractory status epilepticus (median age, 3.7 yr; 50% male), 54 (49%) underwent continuous infusion of anesthetic treatment. MAIN RESULTS: The median (interquartile range) ICU length of stay was 10 (3-20) days. Up to four "cycles" of serial anesthetic therapy were used, and seizure termination was achieved in 94% by the second cycle. Seizure duration in controlled patients was 5.9 (1.9-34) hours for the first cycle and longer when a second cycle was required (30 [4-120] hr; p = 0.048). Midazolam was the most frequent first-line anesthetic agent (78%); pentobarbital was the most frequently used second-line agent after midazolam failure (82%). An electroencephalographic endpoint was used in over half of the patients; higher midazolam dosing was used with a burst suppression endpoint. In midazolam nonresponders, transition to a second agent occurred after a median of 1 day. Most patients (94%) experienced seizure termination with these two therapies. CONCLUSIONS: Midazolam and pentobarbital remain the mainstay of continuous infusion therapy for refractory status epilepticus in the pediatric patient. The majority of patients experience seizure termination within a median of 30 hours. These data have implications for the design and feasibility of future intervention trials. That is, testing a new anesthetic anticonvulsant after failure of both midazolam and pentobarbital is unlikely to be feasible in a pediatric study, whereas a decision to test an alternative to pentobarbital, after midazolam failure, may be possible in a multicenter multinational study.

Presentation, diagnosis and treatment of bilateral Rasmussen's encephalitis in a 12-year-old female.

AIM: To describe the clinical course and pathological diagnosis of a 12-year-old female who presented with an acute syndrome of right hemispheric epilepsy and cortical dysfunction and brain MRI demonstrating atrophy of the left cerebral and right cerebellar hemispheres. RESULTS: The patient presented with occasional partial seizures consisting of a left calf sensation followed by left leg clonic jerking. Initial brain MRI showed left cerebral and right cerebellar atrophy with T2 hyperintensity in the left parietal region. After six months, the seizure frequency increased and semiology evolved to include frequent clonic movements of the left side of the face, arm and leg and epilepsia partialis continua (EPC) of the left arm and leg. There was progressive weakness of the left leg and, to a lesser extent, her left arm. MRI at this time demonstrated an additional T2 hyperintensity in the right frontal lobe. An extensive evaluation for paraneoplastic, mitochondrial, and genetic epilepsy syndromes was unrevealing. On biopsy evaluation, chronic T-cell mediated encephalitis was demonstrated within bilateral frontal lobes. Treatment with immunomodulatory therapy resulted in some improvement in her seizure frequency and motor function. CONCLUSION: Rasmussen's encephalitis can be a challenging diagnosis. The patient's clinical history, including EPC, with bilateral frontal lobe biopsies confirming a T-cell mediated encephalitis supports a diagnosis of bilateral Rasmussen encephalitis. This case highlights the diagnostic challenges and treatment dilemmas that arise in an adolescent presenting with bilateral inflammatory lesions of Rasmussen's encephalitis. [Published with video sequences].

Pediatric status epilepticus management by Emergency Medical Services (the pSERG cohort).

PURPOSE: Delayed treatment in status epilepticus (SE) is independently associated with increased treatment resistance, morbidity, and mortality. We describe the prehospital management pathway and Emergency Medical Services (EMS) timeliness in children who developed refractory convulsive status epilepticus (RCSE). METHODS: Retrospective multicenter study in the United States using prospectively collected observational data from June 2011 to March 2020. We selected pediatric patients (one month-21 years) with RCSE initiated outside the hospital and transported to the hospital by EMS. RESULTS: We included 91 patients with a median (percentile25-percentile75) age of 3.0 (1.5-7.3) years. The median time from seizure onset to hospital arrival was 45 (30-67) minutes, with a median time cared for by EMS of 24 (15-36) minutes. Considering treatment by caregivers and EMS before hospital arrival, 20 (22%) patients did not receive any anti-seizure medications (ASM) and 71 (78%) received one to five doses of benzodiazepines (BZD), without non-BZD ASM. We provided the prehospital treatment flow path of these patients through caregivers and EMS including relevant time points. Patients with a history of SE were more likely to receive the first BZD in the prehospital setting compared to patients without a history of SE (adjusted HR 3.25, 95% CI 1.72-6.12, p<0.001). CONCLUSION: In this multicenter study of pediatric RCSE, prehospital treatment may be streamlined further. Patients with a history of SE were more likely to receive prehospital rescue medication.

Early Clinical Variables Associated With Refractory Convulsive Status Epilepticus in Children.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to determine patient-specific factors known proximate to the presentation to emergency care associated with the development of refractory convulsive status epilepticus (RSE) in children. METHODS: An observational case-control study was conducted comparing pediatric patients (1 month-21 years) with convulsive SE whose seizures stopped after benzodiazepine (BZD) and a single second-line antiseizure medication (ASM) (responsive established status epilepticus [rESE]) with patients requiring more than a BZD and a single second-line ASM to stop their seizures (RSE). These subpopulations were obtained from the pediatric Status Epilepticus Research Group study cohort. We explored clinical variables that could be acquired early after presentation to emergency medical services with univariate analysis of the raw data. Variables with p < 0.1 were retained for univariable and multivariable regression analyses. Multivariable logistic regression models were fit to age-matched and sex-matched data to obtain variables associated with RSE. RESULTS: We compared data from a total of 595 episodes of pediatric SE. Univariate analysis demonstrated no differences in time to the first BZD (RSE 16 minutes [IQR 5-45]; rESE 18 minutes [IQR 6-44], p = 0.068). Time to second-line ASM was shorter in patients with RSE (RSE 65 minutes; rESE 70 minutes; p = 0.021). Both univariable and multivariable regression analyses revealed a family history of seizures (OR 0.37; 95% CI 0.20-0.70, p = 0.0022) or a prescription for rectal diazepam (OR 0.21; 95% CI 0.078-0.53, p = 0.0012) was associated with decreased odds of RSE. DISCUSSION: Time to initial BZD or second-line ASM was not associated with progression to RSE in our cohort of patients with rESE. A family history of seizures and a prescription for rectal diazepam were associated with a decreased likelihood of progression to RSE. Early attainment of these variables may help care for pediatric rESE in a more patient-tailored manner. CLASSIFICATION OF EVIDENCE: This study provides Class II evidence that patient and clinical factors may predict RSE in children with convulsive seizures.

Acute Flaccid Myelitis: A Multidisciplinary Protocol to Optimize Diagnosis and Evaluation.

Acute flaccid myelitis is an emerging neurologic disease, first described in 2014 and predominantly affecting young children. Acute flaccid myelitis cases tend to spike every 2 years, in the late summer to fall, and the next peak is expected in 2020. The diagnosis of acute flaccid myelitis is often delayed, leading to suboptimal evaluation, including incomplete laboratory assessment. Acute and chronic morbidity are high, and a standardized, multidisciplinary approach to evaluation and treatment is essential to optimizing outcomes. In a review of acute flaccid myelitis patients treated in 2018 at our institution, we noted considerable variability in days to presentation, evaluation, and treatment. In response, the authors developed a protocol for the evaluation and management of pediatric patients suspected of having acute flaccid myelitis. The protocol was developed using local experience/case review, expert consensus, and the relevant literature. The protocol spans the spectrum of care, from initial evaluation in a primary care or emergency setting, to acute hospital management and evaluation and long-term inpatient and rehabilitation settings. The purpose of this report is both to share the findings from our 2018 case review and to disseminate our acute flaccid myelitis protocol. Our hope is that publication of our protocol will both inform the development of a standardized approach to acute flaccid myelitis and to encourage other centers to form a multidisciplinary acute flaccid myelitis team to provide expert care throughout the disease process, from presentation to recovery.

Time to Treatment in Pediatric Convulsive Refractory Status Epilepticus: The Weekend Effect.

BACKGROUND: Time to treatment in pediatric refractory status epilepticus is delayed. We aimed to evaluate the influence of weekends and holidays on time to treatment of this pediatric emergency. METHODS: We performed a retrospective analysis of prospectively collected observational data of pediatric patients with refractory status epilepticus. RESULTS: We included 329 patients (56% males) with a median (p25 to p75) age of 3.8 (1.3 to 9) years. The median (p25 to p75) time to first BZD on weekdays and weekends/holidays was 20 (6.8 to 48.3) minutes versus 11 (5 to 35) minutes, P = 0.01; adjusted hazard ratio (HR) = 1.20 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.95 to 1.55), P = 0.12. The time to first non-BZD ASM was longer on weekdays than on weekends/holidays (68 [42.8 to 153.5] minutes versus 59 [27 to 120] minutes, P = 0.006; adjusted HR = 1.38 [95% CI: 1.08 to 1.76], P = 0.009). However, this difference was mainly driven by status epilepticus with in-hospital onset: among 108 patients, the time to first non-BZD ASM was longer during weekdays than during weekends/holidays (55.5 [28.8 to 103.5] minutes versus 28 [15.8 to 66.3] minutes, P = 0.003; adjusted HR = 1.65 [95% CI: 1.08 to 2.51], P = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: The time to first non-BZD ASM in pediatric refractory status epilepticus is shorter on weekends/holidays than on weekdays, mainly driven by in-hospital onset status epilepticus. Data on what might be causing this difference may help tailor policies to improve medication application timing.

Variation in Treatment and Outcomes of Children With Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis.

OBJECTIVES: To characterize variation in treatments and outcomes of pediatric patients admitted to children's hospitals with acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM). METHODS: In this retrospective cohort study, we used data from the Pediatric Health Information System. Children >30 days old who were hospitalized from 2010 to 2015 with ADEM were included. Variables analyzed were treatments and admission to an ICU. Primary outcomes were discharge disposition and readmissions for relapses (ADEM readmissions) or for continued comorbidities (non-ADEM readmissions). RESULTS: A total of 954 patients with ADEM had 1117 admissions. Treatments included steroids (80%), immunoglobulin (22%), and plasmapheresis (6.6%); 15% of admissions included none of these treatments. Treatments varied by center (P < .001). Thirty-four percent of admissions included ICU admission, which was associated with an increased number and duration of treatments (P < .01). The discharge disposition was home in 85% of admissions; home with health services, rehab facility, or other in 13.6%; and mortality in 1.4%. Twelve percent (117 of 954) of patients had >1 admission for ADEM. Treatment choice and ICU stay were not associated with ADEM readmissions. Sixteen percent (181 of 1101) of ADEM admissions had a non-ADEM readmission within 90 days. Prolonged ICU hospitalization was associated with non-ADEM readmission (adjusted odds ratio 1.9; P = .017) and decreased likelihood of discharge from the hospital to home (adjusted odds ratio 0.1; P < .001). After adjusting for ICU duration, treatment choice and duration were not associated with non-ADEM readmission or hospital disposition. CONCLUSIONS: Significant variation in ADEM treatment exists across centers. Admission to an ICU for ADEM was associated with increased immunotherapy, additional health services at discharge, and readmission for diagnoses other than ADEM.

First-line medication dosing in pediatric refractory status epilepticus.

OBJECTIVE: To identify factors associated with low benzodiazepine (BZD) dosing in patients with refractory status epilepticus (RSE) and to assess the impact of BZD treatment variability on seizure cessation. METHODS: This was a retrospective study with prospectively collected data of children with convulsive RSE admitted between June 2011 and January 2019. We analyzed the initial and total BZD dose within 10 minutes of treatment initiation. We used logistic regression modeling to evaluate predictors of low BZD dosing and multivariate Cox regression analysis to assess the impact of low BZD dosing on time to seizure cessation. RESULTS: We included 289 patients (55.7% male) with a median age of 4.3 (1.3-9.5) years. BZDs were the initial medication in 278 (96.2%). Of those, 161 patients (57.9%) received a low initial dose. Low initial BZD doses occurred in both out-of-hospital (57 of 106; 53.8%) and in-hospital (104 of 172; 60.5%) settings. One hundred three patients (37.1%) received low total BZD dose. Male sex (odds ratio [OR] 2, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.18-3.49; p = 0.012), older age (OR 1.1, 95% CI 1.05-1.17; p < 0.001), no prior diagnosis of epilepsy (OR 2.1, 95% CI 1.23-3.69; p = 0.008), and delayed BZD treatment (OR 2.2, 95% CI 1.24-3.94; p = 0.007) were associated with low total BZD dose. Patients who received low total BZD dosing were less likely to achieve seizure cessation (hazard ratio 0.7, 95% CI 0.57-0.95). CONCLUSION: BZD doses were lower than recommended in both out-of-hospital and in-hospital settings. Factors associated with low total BZD dose included male sex, older age, no prior epilepsy diagnosis, and delayed BZD treatment. Low total BZD dosing was associated with decreased likelihood of Seizure cessation. CLASSIFICATION OF EVIDENCE: This study provides Class III evidence that patients with RSE who present with male sex, older age, no prior diagnosis of epilepsy, and delayed BZD treatment are more likely to receive low total BZD doses. This study provides Class III evidence that in pediatric RSE low total BZD dose decreases the likelihood of seizure cessation.

Association of guideline publication and delays to treatment in pediatric status epilepticus.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether publication of evidence on delays in time to treatment shortens time to treatment in pediatric refractory convulsive status epilepticus (rSE), we compared time to treatment before (2011-2014) and after (2015-2019) publication of evidence of delays in treatment of rSE in the Pediatric Status Epilepticus Research Group (pSERG) as assessed by patient interviews and record review. METHODS: We performed a retrospective analysis of a prospectively collected dataset from June 2011 to September 2019 on pediatric patients (1 month-21 years of age) with rSE. RESULTS: We studied 328 patients (56% male) with median (25th-75th percentile [p25-p75]) age of 3.8 (1.3-9.4) years. There were no differences in the median (p25-p75) time to first benzodiazepine (BZD) (20 [5-52.5] vs 15 [5-38] minutes, p = 0.3919), time to first non-BZD antiseizure medication (68 [34.5-163.5] vs 65 [33-142] minutes, p = 0.7328), and time to first continuous infusion (186 [124.2-571] vs 160 [89.5-495] minutes, p = 0.2236). Among 157 patients with out-of-hospital onset whose time to hospital arrival was available, the proportion who received at least 1 BZD before hospital arrival increased after publication of evidence of delays (41 of 81 [50.6%] vs 57 of 76 [75%], p = 0.0018), and the odds ratio (OR) was also increased in multivariable logistic regression (OR 4.35 [95% confidence interval 1.96-10.3], p = 0.0005). CONCLUSION: Publication of evidence on delays in time to treatment was not associated with improvements in time to treatment of rSE, although it was associated with an increase in the proportion of patients who received at least 1 BZD before hospital arrival.

Electroencephalographic Reporting for Refractory Status Epilepticus.

PURPOSE: We aimed to determine whether clinical EEG reports obtained from children in the intensive care unit with refractory status epilepticus could provide data for comparative effectiveness research studies. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective descriptive study to assess the documentation of key variables within clinical continuous EEG monitoring reports based on the American Clinical Neurophysiology Society's standardized EEG terminology for children with refractory status epilepticus from 10 academic centers. Two pediatric electroencephalographers reviewed the EEG reports. We compared reports generated using free text or templates. RESULTS: We reviewed 191 EEG reports. Agreement between the electroencephalographers regarding whether a variable was described in the report ranged from fair to very good. The presence of electrographic seizures (ES) was documented in 46% (87/191) of reports, and these reports documented the time of first ES in 64% (56/87), ES duration in 72% (63/85), and ES frequency in 68% (59/87). Reactivity was documented in 16% (31/191) of reports, and it was more often documented in template than in free-text reports (40% vs. 14%, P = 0.006). Other variables were not differentially reported in template versus free-text reports. CONCLUSIONS: Many key EEG features are not documented consistently in clinical continuous EEG monitoring reports, including ES characteristics and reactivity assessment. Standardization may be needed for clinical EEG reports to provide informative data for large multicenter observational studies.

The onset of pediatric refractory status epilepticus is not distributed uniformly during the day.

PURPOSE: To evaluate whether the onset of pediatric refractory status epilepticus (rSE) is related to time of day. METHOD: We analyzed the time of day for the onset of rSE in this prospective observational study performed from June 2011 to May 2019 in pediatric patients (1 month to 21 years of age). We evaluated the temporal distribution of pediatric rSE utilizing a cosinor analysis. We calculated the midline estimating statistic of rhythm (MESOR) and amplitude. MESOR is the estimated mean number of rSE episodes per hour if they were evenly distributed. Amplitude is the difference between MESOR and maximum rSE episodes/hour, or between MESOR and minimum rSE episodes/hour. We also evaluated the temporal distribution of time to treatment. RESULTS: We analyzed 368 patients (58% males) with a median (p25 - p75) age of 4.2 (1.3-9.7) years. The MESOR was 15.3 (95% CI: 13.9-16.8) and the amplitude was 3.2 (95% CI: 1.1-5.3), p = 0.0024, demonstrating that the distribution is not uniform, but better described as varying throughout the day with a peak in the morning (11am-12 pm) and trough at night (11 pm-12 am). The duration from rSE onset to application of the first non-benzodiazepine antiseizure medication peaked during the early morning (2am-3 am) with a minimum during the afternoon (2 pm-3 pm) (p = 0.0179). CONCLUSIONS: The distribution of rSE onset is not uniform during the day. rSE onset shows a 24-h distribution with a peak in the mid-morning (11am-12 pm) and a trough at night (11 pm-12am).