High-performance organic pseudocapacitors via molecular contortion.

Pseudocapacitors harness unique charge-storage mechanisms to enable high-capacity, rapidly cycling devices. Here we describe an organic system composed of perylene diimide and hexaazatrinaphthylene exhibiting a specific capacitance of 689 F g-1 at a rate of 0.5 A g-1, stability over 50,000 cycles, and unprecedented performance at rates as high as 75 A g-1. We incorporate the material into two-electrode devices for a practical demonstration of its potential in next-generation energy-storage systems. We identify the source of this exceptionally high rate charge storage as surface-mediated pseudocapacitance, through a combination of spectroscopic, computational and electrochemical measurements. By underscoring the importance of molecular contortion and complementary electronic attributes in the selection of molecular components, these results provide a general strategy for the creation of organic high-performance energy-storage materials.

Intermolecular Resonance Correlates Electron Pairs Down a Supermolecular Chain: Antiferromagnetism in K-Doped p-Terphenyl.

Recent interest in potassium-doped p-terphenyl has been fueled by reports of superconductivity at Tc values surprisingly high for organic compounds. Despite these interesting properties, studies of the structure-function relationships within these materials have been scarce. Here, we isolate a phase-pure crystal of potassium-doped p-terphenyl: [K(222)]2[p-terphenyl3]. Emerging antiferromagnetism in the anisotropic structure is studied in depth by magnetometry and electron spin resonance. Combining these experimental results with density functional theory calculations, we describe the antiferromagnetic coupling in this system that occurs in all 3 crystallographic directions. The strongest coupling was found along the ends of the terphenyls, where the additional electron on neighboring p-terphenyls antiferromagnetically couple. This delocalized bonding interaction is reminiscent of the doubly degenerate resonance structure depiction of polyacetylene. These findings hint toward magnetic fluctuation-induced superconductivity in potassium-doped p-terphenyl, which has a close analogy with high Tc cuprate superconductors. The new approach described here is very versatile as shown by the preparation of two additional salts through systematic changing of the building blocks.

Solution-Processable Superatomic Thin-Films.

Atomically precise nanoscale clusters could assemble into crystalline ionic crystals akin to the atomic ionic solids through the strong electrostatic interactions between the constituent clusters. Here we show that, unlike atomic ionic solids, the electrostatic interactions between nanoscale clusters could be frustrated by using large clusters with long and flexible side-chains so that the ionic cluster pairs do not crystallize. As such, we report ionic superatomic materials that can be easily solution-processed into completely amorphous and homogeneous thin-films. These new amorphous superatomic materials show tunable compositions and new properties that are not achievable in crystals, including very high electrical conductivities of up to 300 S per meter, ultra low thermal conductivities of 0.05 W per meter per degree kelvin, and high optical transparency of up to 92%. We also demonstrate thin-film thermoelectrics with unoptimized ZT values of 0.02 based on the superatomic thin-films. Such properties are competitive to state-of-the-art materials and make superatomic materials promising as a new class of electronic and thermoelectric materials for devices.

Dimensional Control in Contorted Aromatic Materials.

This Account details key developments in dimensional control of contorted aromatics for organic electronics. Coronene, perylene, pyrene, and [4]helicene, which are fragments of graphene, can be contorted using facile synthetic chemistry into large nanoribbons and nano-architectures. In comparing contorted or higher-dimensional graphene architectures to planar or lower-dimensional species, the materials properties are reliably enhanced for the contorted aromatics. Examples of enhanced properties include optical absorptivity, conductivity, device photoconversion efficiency, and solubility. These enhancements are exemplified in organic photovoltaics, photodetectors, field effect transistors, and perovskite solar cells. Described herein are key advances in dimensional control of contorted aromatics that have resulted in world record photoconversion efficiencies, photodetection capabilities matching inorganic state-of-the-art devices, and ∼5 nm long ultrathin soluble graphene nanoribbons.

Designing Three-Dimensional Architectures for High-Performance Electron Accepting Pseudocapacitors.

By storing energy from electrochemical processes at the electrode surface, pseudocapacitors bridge the performance gap between electrostatic double-layer capacitors and batteries. In this context, molecular design offers the exciting possibility to create tunable and inexpensive organic electroactive materials. Here we describe a porous structure composed of perylene diimide and triptycene subunits and demonstrate its remarkable performance as a pseudocapacitor electrode material. The material exhibits capacitance values as high as 350 F/g at 0.2 A/g as well as excellent stability over 10 000 cycles. Moreover, we can alter the performance of the material, from battery-like (storing more charge at low rates) to capacitor-like (faster charge cycling), by modifying the structure of the pores via flow photocyclization. Organic materials capable of stable electron accepting pseudocapacitor behavior are rare and the capacitance values presented here are among the highest reported. More broadly, this work establishes molecular design and synthesis as a powerful approach for creating tunable energy storage materials.

Three-Dimensional Graphene Nanostructures.

This Communication details the implementation of a new concept for the design of high-performance optoelectronic materials: three-dimensional (3D) graphene nanostructures. This general strategy is showcased through the synthesis of a three-bladed propeller nanostructure resulting from the coupling and fusion of a central triptycene hub and helical graphene nanoribbons. Importantly, these 3D graphene nanostructures show remarkable new properties that are distinct from the substituent parts. For example, the larger nanostructures show an enhancement in absorption and decreased contact resistance in optoelectronic devices. To show these enhanced properties in a device setting, the nanostructures were utilized as the electron-extracting layers in perovskite solar cells. The largest of these nanostructures achieved a PCE of 18.0%, which is one of the highest values reported for non-fullerene electron-extracting layers.

Cove-Edge Nanoribbon Materials for Efficient Inverted Halide Perovskite Solar Cells.

Two cove-edge graphene nanoribbons hPDI2-Pyr-hPDI2 (1) and hPDI3-Pyr-hPDI3 (2) are used as efficient electron-transporting materials (ETMs) in inverted planar perovskite solar cells (PSCs). Devices based on the new graphene nanoribbons exhibit maximum power-conversion efficiencies (PCEs) of 15.6 % and 16.5 % for 1 and 2, respectively, while a maximum PCE of 14.9 % is achieved with devices based on [6,6]-phenyl-C61 -butyric acid methyl ester (PC61 BM). The interfacial effects induced by these new materials are studied using photoluminescence (PL), and we find that 1 and 2 act as efficient electron-extraction materials. Additionally, compared with PC61 BM, these new materials are more hydrophobic and have slightly higher LUMO energy levels, thus providing better device performance and higher device stability.

Superatomic solid solutions.

In atomic solids, substitutional doping of atoms into the lattice of a material to form solid solutions is one of the most powerful approaches to modulating its properties and has led to the discovery of various metal alloys and semiconductors. Herein we have prepared solid solutions in hierarchical solids that are built from atomically precise clusters. Two geometrically similar metal chalcogenide clusters, Co6Se8(PEt3)6 and Cr6Te8(PEt3)6, were combined as random substitutional mixture, in three different ratios, in a crystal lattice together with fullerenes. This does not alter the underlying crystalline structure of the [cluster][C60]2 material, but it influences its electronic and magnetic properties. All three solid solutions showed increased electrical conductivities compared with either the Co- or Cr-based parent material, substantially so for two of the Co:Cr ratios (up to 100-fold), and lowered activation barriers for electron transport. We attribute this to the existence of additional energy states arising from the materials' structural heterogeneity, which effectively narrow transport gaps.

Air-stable, long-length, solution-based graphene nanoribbons.

Within the context of nanoelectronics, general strategies for the development of electronically tunable and air stable graphene nanoribbons are crucial. Previous studies towards the goal of processable nanoribbons have been complicated by ambient condition instability, insolubility arising from aggregation, or poor cyclization yield due to electron deficiency. Herein, we present a general strategy for the elongation of smaller graphene nanoribbon fragments into air-stable, easily processed, and electronically tunable nanoribbons. This strategy is facilitated by the incorporation of electron-rich donor units between electron-poor acceptor perylene diimide oligomeric units. The ribbons are processed in solution via a visible-light flow photocyclization using LEDs. The resulting long nanoribbons can be solution-cast and imaged, which are necessary characteristics for device fabrication. The ribbons become conductive after thermolysis of the pendent side-chains. The electron-accepting character of these nanoribbons in solution is reversible, and the conductivity of the thermolyzed species as a solid remains stable. This work highlights our general strategy for the mild and reliable fabrication of tunable and ambient-stable graphene nanoribbons, and charts a straightforward route for facile device incorporation.

Imaging Charge Transfer State Excitations in Polymer/Fullerene Solar Cells with Time-Resolved Electrostatic Force Microscopy.

We demonstrate nanoscale imaging of charge transfer state photoexcitations in polymer/fullerene bulk heterojunction solar cells using time-resolved electrostatic force microscopy (trEFM). We compare local trEFM charging rates and external quantum efficiencies (EQE) for both above-gap and below-gap excitation of the model system poly[2-methoxy-5-(3',7'-dimethyloctyloxy)-1,4-phenylenevinylene] (MDMO-PPV) and [6,6]-phenyl C61 butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM). We show that the local trEFM charging rate correlates with device EQE for both above-gap and below-gap photoexcitation, demonstrating that EFM methods have sufficient sensitivity to detect the low EQEs associated with CT state formation, a result that could be useful for probing weak subgap excitations in nanostructured materials such as quantum dot and organometal halide perovskite solar cells. Further, we use trEFM to map spatial variations in EQE arising from subgap CT excitation in organic photovoltaics (OPVs) and find that the local distribution of photocurrent arising from these states is nearly identical to the spatial variation in EQE from above-gap singlet excitation. These results are consistent with recent work showing that both above-gap and below-gap excitation have similar internal quantum efficiency.