Azidoethoxyphenylalanine as a Vibrational Reporter and Click Chemistry Partner in Proteins.

An unnatural amino acid, 4-(2-azidoethoxy)-L-phenylalanine (AePhe, 1), was designed and synthesized in three steps from known compounds in 54% overall yield. The sensitivity of the IR absorption of the azide of AePhe was established by comparison of the frequency of the azide asymmetric stretch vibration in water and dimethyl sulfoxide. AePhe was successfully incorporated into superfolder green fluorescent protein (sfGFP) at the 133 and 149 sites by using the amber codon suppression method. The IR spectra of these sfGFP constructs indicated that the azide group at the 149 site was not fully solvated despite the location in sfGFP and the three-atom linker between the azido group and the aromatic ring of AePhe. An X-ray crystal structure of sfGFP-149-AePhe was solved at 1.45 Å resolution and provides an explanation for the IR data as the flexible linker adopts a conformation which partially buries the azide on the protein surface. Both sfGFP-AePhe constructs efficiently undergo a bioorthogonal strain-promoted click cycloaddition with a dibenzocyclooctyne derivative.

Modulating the pH dependent photophysical properties of green fluorescent protein.

The photophysical properties of the ß-barrel superfolder green fluorescent protein (sfGFP) arise from the chromophore that forms post-translationally in the interior of the protein. Specifically, the protonation state of the side chain of tyrosine 66 in the chromophore, in addition to the network of hydrogen bonds between the chromophore and surrounding residues, is directly related to the electronic absorbance and emission properties of the protein. The pH dependence of the photophysical properties of this protein were modulated by the genetic, site-specific incorporation of 3-nitro-l-tyrosine (mNO2Y) at site 66 in sfGFP. The altered photophysical properties of this noncanonical amino acid (ncAA) sfGFP construct were assessed by absorbance and fluorescence spectroscopies. Notably, a comparison of the pK a of the 3-nitrophenol side chain of mNO2Y incorporated in the protein relative to the phenol side chain of the tyrosine at site 66 in the native chromophore as well as the pK a of the 3-nitrophenol side chain of the free ncAA were measured and are compared. A structural analysis of the ncAA containing sfGFP construct is presented to yield molecular insight into the origin of the altered absorbance and fluorescence properties of the protein.

Porphyrin-substituted H-NOX proteins as high-relaxivity MRI contrast agents.

Heme proteins are exquisitely tuned to carry out diverse biological functions while employing identical heme cofactors. Although heme protein properties are often altered through modification of the protein scaffold, protein function can be greatly expanded and diversified through replacement of the native heme with an unnatural porphyrin of interest. Thus, porphyrin substitution in proteins affords new opportunities to rationally tailor heme protein chemical properties for new biological applications. Here, a highly thermally stable Heme Nitric oxide/OXygen binding (H-NOX) protein is evaluated as a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agent. T1 and T2 relaxivities measured for the H-NOX protein containing its native heme are compared to the protein substituted with unnatural manganese(II/III) and gadolinium(III) porphyrins. H-NOX proteins are found to provide unique porphyrin coordination environments and have enhanced relaxivities compared to commercial small-molecule agents. Porphyrin substitution is a promising strategy to encapsulate MRI-active metals in heme protein scaffolds for future imaging applications.

Unraveling Complex Local Protein Environments with 4-Cyano-l-phenylalanine.

We present a multifaceted approach to effectively probe complex local protein environments utilizing the vibrational reporter unnatural amino acid (UAA) 4-cyano-l-phenylalanine (pCNPhe) in the model system superfolder green fluorescent protein (sfGFP). This approach combines temperature-dependent infrared (IR) spectroscopy, X-ray crystallography, and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to provide a molecular interpretation of the local environment of the nitrile group in the protein. Specifically, a two-step enantioselective synthesis was developed that provided an 87% overall yield of pCNPhe in high purity without the need for chromatography. It was then genetically incorporated individually at three unique sites (74, 133, and 149) in sfGFP to probe these local protein environments. The incorporation of the UAA site-specifically in sfGFP utilized an engineered, orthogonal tRNA synthetase in E. coli using the Amber codon suppression protocol, and the resulting UAA-containing sfGFP constructs were then explored with this approach. This methodology was effectively utilized to further probe the local environments of two surface sites (sites 133 and 149) that we previously explored with room temperature IR spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography and a new interior site (site 74) featuring a complex local environment around the nitrile group of pCNPhe. Site 133 was found to be solvent-exposed, while site 149 was partially buried. Site 74 was found to consist of three distinct local environments around the nitrile group including nonspecific van der Waals interactions, hydrogen-bonding to a structural water, and hydrogen-bonding to a histidine side chain.

Controlling conformational flexibility of an O2-binding H-NOX domain.

Heme Nitric oxide/OXygen binding (H-NOX) domains have provided a novel scaffold to probe ligand affinity in hemoproteins. Mutation of isoleucine 5, a conserved residue located in the heme-binding pocket of the H-NOX domain from Thermoanaerobacter tengcongensis (Tt H-NOX), was carried out to examine changes in oxygen (O(2))-binding properties. A series of I5 mutants (I5F, I5F/I75F, I5F/L144F, I5F/I75F/L144F) were investigated to probe the role of steric bulk within the heme pocket. The mutations significantly increased O(2) association rates (1.5-2.5-fold) and dissociation rates (8-190-fold) as compared to wild-type Tt H-NOX. Structural changes that accompanied the I5F mutation were characterized using X-ray crystallography and resonance Raman spectroscopy. A 1.67 Å crystal structure of the I5F mutant indicated that introducing a phenylalanine at position 5 resulted in a significant shift of the N-terminal domain of the protein, causing an opening of the heme pocket. This movement also resulted in an increased amount of flexibility at the N-terminus and the loop covering the N-terminal helix as indicated by the two conformations of the first six N-terminal amino acids, high B-factors in this region of the protein, and partially discontinuous electron density. In addition, introduction of a phenylalanine at position 5 resulted in increased flexibility of the heme within the pocket and weakened hydrogen bonding to the bound O(2) as measured by resonance Raman spectroscopy. This study provides insight into the critical role of I5 in controlling conformational flexibility and ligand affinity in H-NOX proteins.

Structural and spectrophotometric investigation of two unnatural amino-acid altered chromophores in the superfolder green fluorescent protein.

The spectrophotometric properties of the green fluorescent protein (GFP) result from the post-translationally cyclized chromophore composed of three amino acids including a tyrosine at the center of the ß-barrel protein. Altering the amino acids in the chromophore or the nearby region has resulted in numerous GFP variants with differing photophysical properties. To further examine the effect of small atomic changes in the chromophore on the structure and photophysical properties of GFP, the hydroxyl group of the chromophore tyrosine was replaced with a nitro or a cyano group. The structures and spectrophotometric properties of these superfolder GFP (sfGFP) variants with the unnatural amino acids (UAAs) 4-nitro-L-phenylalanine or 4-cyano-L-phenylalanine were explored. Notably, the characteristic 487 nm absorbance band of wild-type (wt) sfGFP is absent in both unnatural amino-acid-containing protein constructs (Tyr66pNO2Phe-sfGFP and Tyr66pCNPhe-sfGFP). Consequently, neither Tyr66pNO2Phe-sfGFP nor Tyr66pCNPhe-sfGFP exhibited the characteristic emission of wt sfGFP centered at 511 nm when excited at 487 nm. Tyr66pNO2Phe-sfGFP appeared orange due to an absorbance band centered at 406 nm that was not present in wt sfGFP, while Tyr66pCNPhe-sfGFP appeared colorless with an absorbance band centered at 365 nm. Mass spectrometry and X-ray crystallography confirmed the presence of a fully formed chromophore and no significant structural changes in either of these UAA-containing protein constructs, signaling that the change in the observed photophysical properties of the proteins is the result of the presence of the UAA in the chromophore.

Paired Spectroscopic and Crystallographic Studies of Proteases.

The active sites of subtilisin and trypsin have been studied by paired IR spectroscopic and X-ray crystallographic studies. The active site serines of the proteases were reacted with 4-cyanobenzenesulfonyl fluoride (CBSF), an inhibitor that contains a nitrile vibrational reporter. The nitrile stretch vibration of the water-soluble inhibitor model, potassium 4-cyanobenzenesulfonate (KCBSO), and the inhibitor were calibrated by IR solvent studies in H2O/DMSO and the frequency-temperature line-slope (FTLS) method in H2O and THF. The inhibitor complexes were examined by FTLS and the slopes of the best fit lines for subtilisin-CBS and trypsin-CBS in aqueous buffer were both measured to be -3.5×10-2 cm-1/°C. These slopes were intermediate in value between that of KCBSO in aqueous buffer and CBSF in THF, which suggests that the active-site nitriles in both proteases are mostly solvated. The X-ray crystal structures of the subtilisin-CBS and trypsin-CBS complexes were solved at 1.27 and 1.32 Å, respectively. The inhibitor was modelled in two conformations in subtilisin-CBS and in one conformation in the trypsin-CBS. The crystallographic data support the FTLS data that the active-site nitrile groups are mostly solvated and participate in hydrogen bonds with water molecules. The combination of IR spectroscopy utilizing vibrational reporters paired with X-ray crystallography provides a powerful approach to studying protein structure.

Crystal structures of green fluorescent protein with the unnatural amino acid 4-nitro-L-phenylalanine.

The X-ray crystal structures of two superfolder green fluorescent protein (sfGFP) constructs containing a genetically incorporated spectroscopic reporter unnatural amino acid, 4-nitro-L-phenylalanine (pNO2F), at two unique sites in the protein have been determined. Amber codon-suppression methodology was used to site-specifically incorporate pNO2F at a solvent-accessible (Asp133) and a partially buried (Asn149) site in sfGFP. The Asp133pNO2F sfGFP construct crystallized with two molecules per asymmetric unit in space group P3221 and the crystal structure was refined to 2.05 Šresolution. Crystals of Asn149pNO2F sfGFP contained one molecule of sfGFP per asymmetric unit in space group P4122 and the structure was refined to 1.60 Šresolution. The alignment of Asp133pNO2F or Asn149pNO2F sfGFP with wild-type sfGFP resulted in small root-mean-square deviations, illustrating that these residues do not significantly alter the protein structure and supporting the use of pNO2F as an effective spectroscopic reporter of local protein structure and dynamics.

Exploring local solvation environments of a heme protein using the spectroscopic reporter 4-cyano-l-phenylalanine.

The vibrational reporter unnatural amino acid (UAA) 4-cyano-l-phenylalanine (pCNF) was genetically incorporated individually at three sites (5, 36, and 78) in the heme protein Caldanaerobacter subterraneus H-NOX to probe local hydration environments. The UAA pCNF was incorporated site-specifically using an engineered, orthogonal tRNA synthetase in E. coli. The ability of all of the pCNF-containing H-NOX proteins to form the ferrous CO, NO, or O2 ligated and unligated states was confirmed with UV-Vis spectroscopy. The solvation state at each site of the three sites of pCNF incorporation was assessed using temperature-dependent infrared spectroscopy. Specifically, the frequency-temperature line slope (FTLS) method was utilized to show that the nitrile group at site 36 was fully solvated and the nitrile group at site 78 was de-solvated (buried) in the heme pocket. The nitrile group at site 5 was found to be partially solvated suggesting that the nitrile group was involved in moderate strength hydrogen bonds. These results were confirmed by the determination of the X-ray crystal structure of the H-NOX protein construct containing pCNF at site 5.

Structural and Functional Evidence Indicates Selective Oxygen Signaling in Caldanaerobacter subterraneus H-NOX.

Acute and specific sensing of diatomic gas molecules is an essential facet of biological signaling. Heme nitric oxide/oxygen binding (H-NOX) proteins are a family of gas sensors found in diverse classes of bacteria and eukaryotes. The most commonly characterized bacterial H-NOX domains are from facultative anaerobes and are activated through a conformational change caused by formation of a 5-coordinate Fe(II)-NO complex. Members of this H-NOX subfamily do not bind O2 and therefore can selectively ligate NO even under aerobic conditions. In contrast, H-NOX domains encoded by obligate anaerobes do form stable 6-coordinate Fe(II)-O2 complexes by utilizing a conserved H-bonding network in the ligand-binding pocket. The biological function of O2-binding H-NOX domains has not been characterized. In this work, the crystal structures of an O2-binding H-NOX domain from the thermophilic obligate anaerobe Caldanaerobacter subterraneus (Cs H-NOX) in the Fe(II)-NO, Fe(II)-CO, and Fe(II)-unliganded states are reported. The Fe(II)-unliganded structure displays a conformational shift distinct from the NO-, CO-, and previously reported O2-coordinated structures. In orthogonal signaling assays using Cs H-NOX and the H-NOX signaling effector histidine kinase from Vibrio cholerae (Vc HnoK), Cs H-NOX regulates Vc HnoK in an O2-dependent manner and requires the H-bonding network to distinguish O2 from other ligands. The crystal structures of Fe(II) unliganded and NO- and CO-bound Cs H-NOX combined with functional assays herein provide the first evidence that H-NOX proteins from obligate anaerobes can serve as O2 sensors.

Probing the effectiveness of spectroscopic reporter unnatural amino acids: a structural study.

The X-ray crystal structures of superfolder green fluorescent protein (sfGFP) containing the spectroscopic reporter unnatural amino acids (UAAs) 4-cyano-L-phenylalanine (pCNF) or 4-ethynyl-L-phenylalanine (pCCF) at two unique sites in the protein have been determined. These UAAs were genetically incorporated into sfGFP in a solvent-exposed loop region and/or a partially buried site on the ß-barrel of the protein. The crystal structures containing the UAAs at these two sites permit the structural implications of UAA incorporation for the native protein structure to be assessed with high resolution and permit a direct correlation between the structure and spectroscopic data to be made. The structural implications were quantified by comparing the root-mean-square deviation (r.m.s.d.) between the crystal structure of wild-type sfGFP and the protein constructs containing either pCNF or pCCF in the local environment around the UAAs and in the overall protein structure. The results suggest that the selective placement of these spectroscopic reporter UAAs permits local protein environments to be studied in a relatively nonperturbative fashion with site-specificity.

Porphyrin π-stacking in a heme protein scaffold tunes gas ligand affinity.

The role of π-stacking in controlling redox and ligand binding properties of porphyrins has been of interest for many years. The recent discovery of H-NOX domains has provided a model system to investigate the role of porphyrin π-stacking within a heme protein scaffold. Removal of a phenylalanine-porphyrin π-stack dramatically increased O2, NO, and CO affinities and caused changes in redox potential (~40mV) without any structural changes. These results suggest that small changes in redox potential affect ligand affinity and that π-stacking may provide a novel route to engineer heme protein properties for new functions.