Frontal Plane Correction of Hallux Valgus Deformity With a Minimally Invasive Third Generation Tecnique: Short-Term Radiographic Outcomes of a Prospective Case Series.

A number of minimally invasive osteotomies have been described for the repair of hallux abducto valgus (HAV) deformities. However, there are no known published studies that evaluate the effects of minimally invasive surgery techniques on the reduction of frontal plane rotation in patients with HAV. The purpose of this study was to assess correction in the transverse and frontal planes in patients undergoing surgical repair of HAV deformity utilizing a modified percutaneous technique. One hundred and five feet in 105 patients with HAV deformity were treated with a third generation minimally invasive technique using a first metatarsal osteotomy that allowed for frontal plane correction in conjunction with an Akin osteotomy. The minimum follow-up time was 12 months. Preoperative and postoperative anteroposterior weightbearing x-ray images were assessed and four measurements were evaluated: hallux abductus angle (HAA), intermetatarsal angle (IMA), tibial sesamoid position and frontal plane rotation of the first metatarsal. There were statistically significant differences for each of the assessments between the preoperative and postoperative radiographs (p < .001). There was a mean reduction in the HAA of 23.5° ± 9.6°, in the IMA, 7.0° ± 3.5°, in the tibial sesamoid position, 2.6 ± 1.3, and an improvement in the assessment of first metatarsal pronation (1.4 ± 0.9). The overall complication rate was 18.1%, with 5.7% of the feet requiring reoperation. The minimally invasive procedure employed by the authors demonstrated suitable outcomes in reducing deformity in both the transverse and frontal planes.

Global change impacts on cacti (Cactaceae): current threats, challenges and conservation solutions.

BACKGROUND: The plant family Cactaceae provides some of the most striking examples of adaptive evolution, expressing undeniably the most spectacular New World radiation of succulent plants distributed across arid and semi-arid regions of the Americas. Cacti are widely regarded for their cultural, economic and ecological value, yet they are also recognized as one of the most threatened and endangered taxonomic groups on the planet. SCOPE: This paper reviews current threats to species of cacti that have distributions in arid to semi-arid subtropical regions. Our review focuses primarily on four global change forces: (1) increases in atmospheric CO2 concentrations; (2) increases in mean annual temperatures and heat waves; (3) increases in the duration, frequency and intensity of droughts; and (4) and increases in competition and wildfire frequency from invasion by non-native species. We provide a broad range of potential priorities and solutions for stemming the extinction risk of cacti species and populations. CONCLUSIONS: Mitigating ongoing and emerging threats to cacti will require not only strong policy initiatives and international cooperation, but also new and creative approaches to conservation. These approaches include determining species at risk from climate extremes, enhancing habitat quality after disturbance, approaches and opportunities for ex situ conservation and restoration, and the potential use of forensic tools for identifying plants that have been removed illegally from the wild and sold on open markets.

Multipurpose Lens Care Systems and Silicone Hydrogel Contact Lens Wettability: A Systematic Review.

PURPOSE: To provide a relationship between materials developed for silicone hydrogel contact lenses and multipurpose care solutions to identify improvements in wettability, for prelens noninvasive break-up time and subjective score. METHODS: This systematic review was completed according to the updated PRISMA 2020 statement recommendations and followed the explanation and elaboration guidelines. The PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus scientific literature databases were searched from January 2000 to November 2021. RESULTS: A total of four clinical trials published between 2011 and 2017 were included in this investigation. All included studies were randomized clinical trials. The success of contact lenses is related to the comfort of their use and therefore to the stability of the tear film and the wettability of its surface. The relationship between these parameters and changes in the ocular surface and inflammatory and infectious processes has been demonstrated. CONCLUSION: Hyaluronan and propylene glycol multipurpose solution (MPS) wetting agents achieved slightly higher prelens noninvasive break-up times than poloxamine. Polyquaternium-1 achieved better wettability and patient comfort than polyhexamethylene biguanide in medium-term studies. Short-term studies did not demonstrate differences between MPSs in their effect on contact lens wettability.

Evolution of Portulacineae Marked by Gene Tree Conflict and Gene Family Expansion Associated with Adaptation to Harsh Environments.

Several plant lineages have evolved adaptations that allow survival in extreme and harsh environments including many families within the plant clade Portulacineae (Caryophyllales) such as the Cactaceae, Didiereaceae, and Montiaceae. Here, using newly generated transcriptomic data, we reconstructed the phylogeny of Portulacineae and examined potential correlates between molecular evolution and adaptation to harsh environments. Our phylogenetic results were largely congruent with previous analyses, but we identified several early diverging nodes characterized by extensive gene tree conflict. For particularly contentious nodes, we present detailed information about the phylogenetic signal for alternative relationships. We also analyzed the frequency of gene duplications, confirmed previously identified whole genome duplications (WGD), and proposed a previously unidentified WGD event within the Didiereaceae. We found that the WGD events were typically associated with shifts in climatic niche but did not find a direct association with WGDs and diversification rate shifts. Diversification shifts occurred within the Portulacaceae, Cactaceae, and Anacampserotaceae, and whereas these did not experience WGDs, the Cactaceae experienced extensive gene duplications. We examined gene family expansion and molecular evolutionary patterns with a focus on genes associated with environmental stress responses and found evidence for significant gene family expansion in genes with stress adaptation and clades found in extreme environments. These results provide important directions for further and deeper examination of the potential links between molecular evolutionary patterns and adaptation to harsh environments.

From cacti to carnivores: Improved phylotranscriptomic sampling and hierarchical homology inference provide further insight into the evolution of Caryophyllales.

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: The Caryophyllales contain ~12,500 species and are known for their cosmopolitan distribution, convergence of trait evolution, and extreme adaptations. Some relationships within the Caryophyllales, like those of many large plant clades, remain unclear, and phylogenetic studies often recover alternative hypotheses. We explore the utility of broad and dense transcriptome sampling across the order for resolving evolutionary relationships in Caryophyllales. METHODS: We generated 84 transcriptomes and combined these with 224 publicly available transcriptomes to perform a phylogenomic analysis of Caryophyllales. To overcome the computational challenge of ortholog detection in such a large data set, we developed an approach for clustering gene families that allowed us to analyze >300 transcriptomes and genomes. We then inferred the species relationships using multiple methods and performed gene-tree conflict analyses. KEY RESULTS: Our phylogenetic analyses resolved many clades with strong support, but also showed significant gene-tree discordance. This discordance is not only a common feature of phylogenomic studies, but also represents an opportunity to understand processes that have structured phylogenies. We also found taxon sampling influences species-tree inference, highlighting the importance of more focused studies with additional taxon sampling. CONCLUSIONS: Transcriptomes are useful both for species-tree inference and for uncovering evolutionary complexity within lineages. Through analyses of gene-tree conflict and multiple methods of species-tree inference, we demonstrate that phylogenomic data can provide unparalleled insight into the evolutionary history of Caryophyllales. We also discuss a method for overcoming computational challenges associated with homolog clustering in large data sets.

Tribulus terrestris and Sport Performance: A Quantitative and Qualitative Evaluation of Its Advertisement and Availability via Online Shopping in Six Different Countries.

Dietary supplements are commonly used among athletes, and the Internet may be an easy source of these products. Tribulus terrestris is an herbal supplement with multiple properties. Of interest to athletes are reports that its consumption can lead to muscle mass gain and a faster recovery process. The objective of this cross-sectional study was to determine the availability of Tribulus terrestris via the Internet in six countries (Canada, Puerto Rico, Russia, Spain, Ukraine, and the United States of America) via a specifically designed computer program. The characteristics of the websites selling this substance, the country from which it can be purchased, the route of administration, and recommendations for its use were analyzed. The results of the study show that this supplement is marketed mainly in Russia, Ukraine, and Spain on many websites that are mostly dedicated to sports products. Just over half of the webpages (59.14%) identified only distribute this supplement within the same country. The main claims for its consumption refer to sports performance benefits, but there are also claims that it may improve male hormone levels and sexual function. Athletes should be encouraged to seek professional advice prior to ingesting this supplement to ensure that it is suitable for their specific training and sports objectives.

Evolution of the Xerocarpa clade (Opuntia; Opuntieae): Evidence for the Role of the Grand Canyon in the Biogeographic History of the Iconic Beavertail Cactus and Relatives.

The formation of the western North American drylands has led to the evolution of an astounding diversity of species well adapted for such communities. Complex historical patterns often underlie the modern distribution of the flora and fauna of these areas. We investigated the biogeography of a group of desert-adapted prickly pears, known as the Xerocarpa clade, from western North America. The Xerocarpa clade originated in the mid-late Pliocene, likely on the Colorado Plateau, and then moved south into the Mojave, Sonoran, and Chihuahuan deserts, and California montane regions, further diversifying, mostly into the Quaternary. The southward trajectory of the clade was likely greatly influenced by the formation of the Grand Canyon. The synapomorphy of dry fruit presumably impeded the long-distance dispersibility of the beavertail cactus, Opuntia basilaris, while dry, spiny fruit may have enabled O. polyacantha to substantially increase its distribution. Opuntia basilaris evolved a pubescent epidermis, allowing it to invade hotter, drier conditions, while the spine-clothed stems of O. polyacantha may have given it an advantage for increasing its northern range into colder environments. The Xerocarpa clade shows a cold desert origin, and changes in morphological characters have made these sister taxa well adapted for invading broadscale, but oftentimes contrasting habitats.

Drug prescription pattern in exotic pet and wildlife animal practice: a retrospective study in a Spanish veterinary teaching hospital from 2018 to 2022.

Exotic companion animals have had an important role in our society since ancient times. Preserving animal health is necessary to do a responsible use of veterinary medicines. This study aimed to describe the prescription patterns of drugs in exotic pets and wildlife animals attending the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of the University of León (HVULE). A retrospective study was carried out between 2018 and 2022. Birds were the largest group of exotic animals attending the HVULE. Visits were related to emergency reasons and for musculoskeletal disorders. One-third of the animals were eventually euthanised. Regarding pharmacological treatments, the most frequently active ingredients used were pentobarbital, isoflurane, meloxicam, and within antibiotics, marbofloxacin (category B in the classification of European Medicines Agency).

Tear Film Dynamics between Low and High Contact Lens Dry Eye Disease Questionnaire (CLDEQ-8) Score with a Lehfilcon A Silicone Hydrogel Water Gradient Contact Lens: A Non-Invasive Methodology Approach.

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the tear film dynamics between individuals with low and high Contact Lens Dry Eye Disease Questionnaire (CLDEQ-8) scores when wearing Lehfilcon A silicone hydrogel water gradient contact lenses. In this study, we implemented a longitudinal, single-location, self-comparison investigation. Variables measured included conjunctival redness, lipid layer thickness, tear meniscus height, first and mean non-invasive break-up time, CLDEQ-8, and standard patient evaluation of eye dryness (SPEED). In the second phase, participants were re-evaluated after 30 days of wearing the contact lenses to assess the tear film wearing the lenses. In a longitudinal comparison by group, we found that lipid layer thickness decreased 1.52 ± 1.38 (p < 0.01) and 0.70 ± 1.30 (p = 0.01) Guillon patterns degrees in the low and high CLDEQ-8 group, respectively. MNIBUT increased in 11.93 ± 17.93 (p < 0.01) and 7.06 ± 12.07 (p < 0.01) seconds. Finally, LOT increased in 22.19 ± 27.57 (p < 0.01) and 16.87 ± 25.09 (p < 0.01). In conclusion, this study demonstrates the effectiveness of Lehfilcon A silicone hydrogel water gradient contact lenses in improving tear film stability and reducing subjective dry eye symptoms in individuals with low and high CLDEQ-8 scores. However, it also led to an increase in conjunctival redness and a decrease in tear meniscus height.

Evaluation of Celligent® Biomimetic Water Gradient Contact Lens Effects on Ocular Surface and Subjective Symptoms.

This study aimed to evaluate the non-invasive and subjective symptoms associated with Lehfilcon A water gradient silicone hydrogel contact lenses with bacterial and lipid resistance technology. A prospective, longitudinal, single-centre, self-controlled study was conducted among silicone hydrogel contact lens wearers. Non-invasive analysis of the pre-lens tear film was performed using the Integrated Clinical Platform (ICP) Ocular Surface Analyzer (OSA), and the meibomian glands were evaluated with the Cobra® HD infrared meibographer. After 30 days of contact lens wear, the subjects were re-evaluated to determine the changes in conjunctival redness, subjective dry eye disease, tear meniscus height, lipid pattern, and non-invasive break-up time. Results showed that the lipid layer thickness decreased significantly from 2.05 ± 1.53 to 0.92 ± 1.09 Guillon patterns, and the tear meniscus height decreased from 0.21 ± 0.04 to 0.14 ± 0.03. The mean pre-lens non-invasive break-up time (NIBUT) significantly increased from 15.19 ± 9.54 to 25.31 ± 15.81 s. The standard Patient Evaluation of Eye Disease (SPEED) score also decreased from 7.39 ± 4.39 to 5.53 ± 4.83. The results suggest that Lehfilcon A significantly reduced lipid and aqueous tear film volume but improved break-up time and subjective dry eye symptoms.

Online information and availability of three doping substances (anabolic agents) in sports: role of pharmacies.

Background: The Internet has become an important source for easy access to doping substances, where people and athletes may acquire, outside pharmacies and without a (medical) prescription. These online websites do not always offer quality-assured products, and are outside the regular distribution channels of medicines. The aim of this study was to estimate the availability and accessible information on the Internet about the sale of three doping substances (oxandrolone, DHEA, androstenedione). Methods: Cross-sectional exploratory study, being an observation at a point in time of the online availability of these three doping substances (WADA S1 category: anabolic agents), purchased from Spain, Puerto Rico, Canada, United States, Ukraine and Russia. The characteristics of the websites, the countries the webs sold to, the pharmaceutical forms offered and the recommendations for its use were analyzed by using a computer tool designed ad hoc. Results: There were significant differences between countries in the number of webpages that sold the products (Chi-square test, p < 0.05). Oxandrolone was available for purchase mainly when buying from Spain (27.12%) and Ukraine (26.58%), in websites dedicated to sports (77.26%). For DHEA, most of the pages offered it if the search was done from Canada (23.34%) and Russia (21.44%). Products containing androstenedione or DHEA are claimed to enhance sports performance or for sports use without providing details. Compared to the total number of websites checked, the proportion of pharmacies offering these products was low, ranging from 4.86% for DHEA to 15.79% for androstenedione. Conclusion: The three substances selected are easily available without control through the Internet. Only a small number of websites offering them were online pharmacies, and requested a prescription. Most of the doping substances are purchased from the country where they are requested. Product information described benefits for sports performance, but did not do the same with their side effects. It would be advisable for these products to be sold through pharmacies, to guarantee their quality and provide evidence-based information on their safe use, benefits and risks, and only with a prescription. Athletes should be encouraged to consult health professionals about those supplements suitable for their type of training and sports objectives.

Key Factors in Early Diagnosis of Myopia Progression within Ocular Biometric Parameters by Scheimpflug Technology.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between myopia and ocular biometric variables using the Pentacam AXL® single rotation Scheimpflug camera. This prospective, cross-sectional, single-center study was performed in fifty Caucasian patients aged between 18 and 30 years (24.84 ± 3.04 years). The measured variables included maximum and minimum keratometry (K1 and K2, respectively), anterior chamber depth (ACD), corneal horizontal diameter or white to white (WTW), central corneal thickness (CCT), corneal asphericity (Q), and axial length (AXL). The tomographic and biometric measurements were considered optimal when the quality factor was greater than 95% according to the manufacturer's software instructions. The AXL presented a significant correlation with the spherical equivalent without cycloplegia (SE without CP), age at onset of myopia (r = -0.365, p = 0.012), mean keratometry (Km) (r = -0.339, p = 0.016), ACD (r = 0.304, p = 0.032), and WTW (r = 0.406, p = 0.005). The eyes with AXL higher than 25 mm had earlier onset; higher SE without CP, AXL, and Q; and a flatter Km. AXL is the biometric variable with the greatest influence on the final refractive state in the adult myopic eye. Ophthalmologists and optometric management must consider these biometric differences in order to identify the most appropriate correction techniques in each case. The use of the Pentacam AXL in ocular biometric measurement is effective, reproducible, and non-invasive.

Complications of Small Aperture Intracorneal Inlays: A Literature Review.

Presbyopia can be defined as the refractive state of the eye in which, due to a physiological decrease in the ability to accommodate, it is not possible to sustain vision without fatigue in a prolonged manner, along with difficulty focusing near vision. It is estimated that its prevalence in 2030 will be approximately 2.1 billion people. Corneal inlays are an alternative in the correction of presbyopia. They are implanted beneath a laser-assisted in situ keratomileusis (LASIK) flap or in a pocket in the center of the cornea of the non-dominant eye. The purpose of this review is to provide information about intraoperative and postoperative KAMRA inlay complications in the available scientific literature. A search was conducted on PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus with the following search strategy: ("KAMRA inlay" OR "KAMRA" OR "corneal inlay pinhole" OR "pinhole effect intracorneal" OR "SAICI" OR "small aperture intracorneal inlay") AND ("complication" OR "explantation" OR "explanted" OR "retired"). The bibliography consulted shows that the insertion of a KAMRA inlay is an effective procedure that improves near vision with a slight decrease in distance vision. However, postoperative complications such as corneal fibrosis, epithelial iron deposits, and stromal haze are described.

Tear Film Stabilization and Symptom Improvement in Dry Eye Disease: The Role of Hyaluronic Acid and Trehalose Eyedrops versus Carmellose Sodium.

This study evaluated the effectiveness of hyaluronic acid and trehalose (HA/trehalose) eyedrops in managing dry eye disease (DED) symptoms by measuring tear stability and administering a DED questionnaire. Sixty patients were treated with either HA/trehalose eyedrops (Tear A) or carmellose sodium eyedrops (Tear B) as controls. The tear breakup time (TBUT) and non-invasive breakup time (NIBUT) were monitored, and patients completed the standard patient evaluation of eye dryness (SPEED) questionnaire. After two months of twice-daily applications, patients treated with the HA/trehalose eyedrops demonstrated significant improvements in the NIBUT (12.98 ± 3.22 s) and TBUT (12.95 ± 2.98 s), indicating increased tear stability. Moreover, they reported lower dry eye sensation (6.70 ± 4.94 SPEED score points), suggesting a reduction in DED symptoms. These findings underscore the efficacy of HA/trehalose eyedrops in improving both the objective and subjective signs of DED, with twice-daily application enhancing ocular surface conditions and reducing patient-reported symptoms.

Phylogeny of Opuntia s.s. (Cactaceae): clade delineation, geographic origins, and reticulate evolution.

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: The opuntias (nopales, prickly pears) are not only culturally, ecologically, economically, and medicinally important, but are renowned for their taxonomic difficulty due to interspecific hybridization, polyploidy, and morphological variability. Evolutionary relationships in these stem succulents have been insufficiently studied; thus, delimitation of Opuntia s.s. and major subclades, as well as the biogeographic history of this enigmatic group, remain unresolved. METHODS: We sequenced the plastid intergenic spacers atpB-rbcL, ndhF-rpl32, psbJ-petA, and trnL-trnF, the plastid genes matK and ycf1, the nuclear gene ppc, and ITS to reconstruct the phylogeny of tribe Opuntieae, including Opuntia s.s. We used phylogenetic hypotheses to infer the biogeographic history, divergence times, and potential reticulate evolution of Opuntieae. KEY RESULTS: Within Opuntieae, a clade of Tacinga, Opuntia lilae, Brasiliopuntia, and O. schickendantzii is sister to a well-supported Opuntia s.s., which includes Nopalea. Opuntia s.s. originated in southwestern South America (SA) and then expanded to the Central Andean Valleys and the desert region of western North America (NA). Two major clades evolved in NA, which subsequently diversified into eight subclades. These expanded north to Canada and south to Central America and the Caribbean, eventually returning back to SA primarily via allopolyploid taxa. Dating approaches suggest that most of the major subclades in Opuntia s.s. originated during the Pliocene. CONCLUSIONS: Opuntia s.s. is a well-supported clade that includes Nopalea. The clade originated in southwestern SA, but the NA radiation was the most extensive, resulting in broad morphological diversity and frequent species formation through reticulate evolution and polyploidy.

Pre-Lens Tear Meniscus Height, Lipid Layer Pattern and Non-Invasive Break-Up Time Short-Term Changes with a Water Gradient Silicone Hydrogel Contact Lens.

To evaluate pre-lens tear film volume, stability and lipid interferometry patterns with a silicone hydrogel water content contact lens, a novel, noninvasive, ocular-surface-analyzer technology was used. A prospective, longitudinal, single-center, self-control study was performed in daily or monthly replacement silicone hydrogel contact lens wearers. A tear film analysis was achieved with the Integrated Clinical Platform (ICP) Ocular Surface Analyzer (OSA) from SBM System. The subjects were reassessed, with the contact lens, after 30 min of wearing to quantify the volume, stability and lipid pattern of the short-term pre-lens tear film. Lipid layer thickness decreased from 2.05 ± 1.53 to 1.90 ± 1.73 Guillon patterns (p = 0.23). First pre-lens NIBUT decreased from 5.03 ± 1.04 to 4.63 ± 0.89 s (p = 0.01). Mean pre-lens NIBUT significantly increased from 15.19 ± 9.54 to 21.27 ± 11.97 s (p < 0.01). Lid opening time significantly increased from 26.36 ± 19.72 to 38.58 ± 21.78 s (p < 0.01). The silicone hydrogel contact lens with water gradient technology significantly increased the mean pre-lens NIBUT and lid opening time. Lehfilcon A suggested an improvement in contact lens wearers with tear film instability or decreased subjective symptoms of dry eye disease.

Effect of macular pigment carotenoids on cognitive functions: A systematic review.

Lutein and zeaxanthin-xanthophyll carotenoids with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory characteristics-are present in the retina and the brain. High concentrations of these carotenoids have been positively related to cognitive performance. Therefore, this systematic review analyses the relationship between macular pigment density and cognitive functions. Most relevant databases were scoured for studies on healthy people relating cognitive functions to macular pigment optical density (MPOD). There were no age, sex, or race limitations. PROSPERO registration: CRD42021254833. Nineteen studies were included, seven randomized controlled trials (RCT) and eleven observational studies. The general aim of the studies was to examine the association between carotenoids (lutein, meso­zeaxanthin and zeaxanthin) and cognitive function. Most observational studies correlates MPOD levels with cognitive function or brain activity. Besides, RCTs compared the cognitive function and/or brain activity after increasing lutein and zeaxanthin intake though dietary supplementation or avocado consumption. Dietary lutein and zeaxanthin intake increased MPOD in six of the seven clinical trials and significantly improved most of the cognitive functions studied. A wide variety of test and methodologies for measuring cognitive functions were observed. Memory, processing speed, attention and reasoning were the cognitive function significantly related to MPOD levels in adults. Brain activity also was related to MPOD, but the results were inconsistent. Only four of the eleven observational studies were based on young people and all studies showed a significant relationship between MPOD and cognitive functions. This systematic review showed a direct relationship among cognitive functions, macular pigment and the intake of lutein and zeaxanthin.

Dry eye disease and tear film assessment through a novel non-invasive ocular surface analyzer: The OSA protocol.

We describe the role of OSA as a new instrument in the study of dry eye, and we recommend a protocol for conducting the tests as well as describe the advantages and disadvantages compared with other instruments. A comparison with other ocular surface devices (Tearscope Plus, Keratograph 5M, anterior-segment ocular coherence tomography, Easy Tear View-Plus, LipiView, IDRA, and LacryDiag) were presented due to manual or automatic procedure and objective or subjective measurements. The purpose of this study was to describe the OSA as new non-invasive dry eye disease diagnostic device. The OSA is a device that can provide accurate, non-invasive and easy-to-use parameters to specifically interpret distinct functions of the tear film. This OSA protocol proposed a lesser to higher non-invasive ocular surface dry eye disease tear film diagnostic methodology. A complete and exhaustive OSA and OSA Plus examination protocol was presented within the subjective questionnaire (Dry Eye Questionnaire 5, DEQ5), limbal and bulbar redness classification (within the Efron grade Scale, interferometry lipid layer thickness (LLT) (according to Guillon pattern), tear meniscus height (manually or automatic), first and mean non-invasive break up time (objective and automatic) and meibomian gland (MG) dysfunction grade and percentage (objective and automatic). The OSA and OSA Plus devices are novel and relevant dry eye disease diagnostic tools; however, the automatization and objectivity of the measurements can be increased in future software or device updates. The new non-invasive devices supposed represent a renewal in the dry eye disease diagnosis and introduce a tendency to replace the classic invasive techniques that supposed less reliability and reproducibility.

Phylogenetic relationships and evolution of growth form in Cactaceae (Caryophyllales, Eudicotyledoneae).

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Cactaceae is one of the most charismatic plant families because of the extreme succulence and outstanding diversity of growth forms of its members. Although cacti are conspicuous elements of arid ecosystems in the New World and are model systems for ecological and anatomical studies, the high morphological convergence and scarcity of phenotypic synapomorphies make the evolutionary relationships and trends among lineages difficult to understand. METHODS: We performed phylogenetic analyses implementing parsimony ratchet and likelihood methods, using a concatenated matrix with 6148 bp of plastid and nuclear markers (trnK/matK, matK, trnL-trnF, rpl16, and ppc). We included 224 species representing approximately 85% of the family's genera. Likelihood methods were used to perform an ancestral character reconstruction within Cactoideae, the richest subfamily in terms of morphological diversity and species number, to evaluate possible growth form evolutionary trends. KEY RESULTS: Our phylogenetic results support previous studies showing the paraphyly of subfamily Pereskioideae and the monophyly of subfamilies Opuntioideae and Cactoideae. After the early divergence of Blossfeldia, Cactoideae splits into two clades: Cacteae, including North American globose and barrel-shaped members, and core Cactoideae, including the largest diversity of growth forms distributed throughout the American continent. Para- or polyphyly is persistent in different parts of the phylogeny. Main Cactoideae clades were found to have different ancestral growth forms, and convergence toward globose, arborescent, or columnar forms occurred in different lineages. CONCLUSIONS: Our study enabled us to provide a detailed hypothesis of relationships among cacti lineages and represents the most complete general phylogenetic framework available to understand evolutionary trends within Cactaceae.