Enhanced stability of M1 protein mediated by a phospho-resistant mutation promotes the replication of prevailing avian influenza virus in mammals.

Avian influenza virus (AIV) can evolve multiple strategies to combat host antiviral defenses and establish efficient infectivity in mammals, including humans. H9N2 AIV and its reassortants (such as H5N6 and H7N9 viruses) pose an increasing threat to human health; however, the mechanisms involved in their increased virulence remain poorly understood. We previously reported that the M1 mutation T37A has become predominant among chicken H9N2 isolates in China. Here, we report that, since 2010, this mutation has also been found in the majority of human isolates of H9N2 AIV and its emerging reassortants. The T37A mutation of M1 protein enhances the replication of H9N2 AIVs in mice and in human cells. Interestingly, having A37 instead of T37 increases the M1 protein stability and resistance to proteasomal degradation. Moreover, T37 of the H9N2 M1 protein is phosphorylated by protein kinase G (PKG), and this phosphorylation induces the rapid degradation of M1 and reduces viral replication. Similar effects are also observed in the novel H5N6 virus. Additionally, ubiquitination at K187 contributes to M1-37T degradation and decreased replication of the virus harboring T37 in the M1 protein. The prevailing AIVs thereby evolve a phospho-resistant mutation in the M1 protein to avoid viral protein degradation by host factors, which is advantageous in terms of replication in mammalian hosts.

Reassortment with dominant chicken H9N2 influenza virus contributed to the fifth H7N9 virus human epidemic.

H9N2 Avian influenza virus (AIV) is regarded as a principal donor of viral genes through reassortment to co-circulating influenza viruses that can result in zoonotic reassortants. Whether H9N2 virus can maintain sustained evolutionary impact on such reassortants is unclear. Since 2013, avian H7N9 virus had caused five sequential human epidemics in China; the fifth wave in 2016-2017 was by far the largest but the mechanistic explanation behind the scale of infection is not clear. Here, we found that, just prior to the fifth H7N9 virus epidemic, H9N2 viruses had phylogenetically mutated into new sub-clades, changed antigenicity and increased its prevalence in chickens vaccinated with existing H9N2 vaccines. In turn, the new H9N2 virus sub-clades of PB2 and PA genes, housing mammalian adaptive mutations, were reassorted into co-circulating H7N9 virus to create a novel dominant H7N9 virus genotype that was responsible for the fifth H7N9 virus epidemic. H9N2-derived PB2 and PA genes in H7N9 virus conferred enhanced polymerase activity in human cells at 33°C and 37°C, and increased viral replication in the upper and lower respiratory tracts of infected mice which could account for the sharp increase in human cases of H7N9 virus infection in the 2016-2017 epidemic. The role of H9N2 virus in the continual mutation of H7N9 virus highlights the public health significance of H9N2 virus in the generation of variant reassortants of increasing zoonotic potential.IMPORTANCEAvian H9N2 influenza virus, although primarily restricted to chicken populations, is a major threat to human public health by acting as a donor of variant viral genes through reassortment to co-circulating influenza viruses. We established that the high prevalence of evolving H9N2 virus in vaccinated flocks played a key role, as donor of new sub-clade PB2 and PA genes in the generation of a dominant H7N9 virus genotype (G72) with enhanced infectivity in humans during the 2016-2017 N7N9 virus epidemic. Our findings emphasize that the ongoing evolution of prevalent H9N2 virus in chickens is an important source, via reassortment, of mammalian adaptive genes for other influenza virus subtypes. Thus, close monitoring of prevalence and variants of H9N2 virus in chicken flocks is necessary in the detection of zoonotic mutations.